8%) in the find more open group and in 8 of 148 (5.4%) in the laparoscopy group, representing a significance difference in favor of microsurgery. The incidence of recurrent varicocele was significantly lower in the microsurgical group than in the open and laparoscopy groups (4 of 155 patients or 2.6% vs 16 of 143 or 11% and 25 of 148 or 17%, respectively). Compared to preoperative values in the 3 groups postoperative semen parameters showed significant improvement in sperm concentration, motility and morphology. The incidence of patients with improved sperm count and motility was significantly higher in the microsurgical group. The pregnancy

rate at 1 year was not significantly different among the 3 groups.

Conclusions: Compared with open and laparoscopic varicocele treatment microsurgical varicocelectomy has the advantages of no hydrocele formation, a lower incidence of recurrent varicocele, and better improvement in sperm count and motility.”
“Purpose: Previous studies show conflicting results of the ability of EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics) to decrease pain during vasectomy. We examined the effectiveness of EMLA cream to decrease pain in

patients undergoing bilateral percutaneous ICG-001 no-scalpel vasectomy.

Materials and Methods: A prospective study was performed in which 316 patients used EMLA cream (178) or no topical anesthesia (138) before vasectomy. EMLA cream was applied by patients 1 hour before the scheduled time of surgery. Bilateral percutaneous no-scalpel vasectomy was then performed in the 2 groups with local infiltration of 1% lidocaine into the scrotal wall and vasal sheath. Following the procedure patients were asked to rate their associated pain using a visual analog scale. Statistical analysis was performed using the 2-sided Student t test.

Results: Mean patient Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase age was similar in the groups with and without EMLA (39.1 and 39.0 years, respectively). No significant difference in mean visual analog pain scores were noted between the EMLA and control

groups (21.5 vs 21.0, p = 0.8).

Conclusions: Topical anesthesia with EMLA did not significantly decrease the pain associated with percutaneous vasectomy.”
“Purpose: Communicating unexpected news of a patient death is rarely encountered in urology. We evaluated resident performance during an unexpected patient death scenario involving high fidelity simulation. We also studied simulation as a tool to teach and assess nontechnical skills in urology.

Materials and Methods: An unexpected patient death scenario was developed at a simulation center using high fidelity mannequins, urology residents, critical care fellows, nurses, hospital chaplains and actors. Scenario objectives addressed Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education core competencies. The 19 urology residents in training years 2 to 6 participated in the scenario.

The diatom spindle illustrates how such a system could function. This matrix may be motile and work in association with the MT cytoskeleton, as it does with the actin cytoskeleton during cell ruffling and amoeboid movement. Instead of pulling the chromosome polewards, the kinetochore fibre’s role CH5424802 concentration might be to slow polewards movement to allow correct chromosome attachment to the spindle. Perhaps the earliest eukaryotic cell was a cytoplast organised

around a radial MT cytoskeleton. For cell division, it separated into two cytoplasts via a spindle of overlapping MTs. Cytokinesis was actin-based cleavage. As chromosomes evolved into individual entities, their interaction with the dividing cytoplast developed into attachment of the kinetochore to radial (cytoplast) MTs. We believe it most likely that cytoplasmic motility systems participated in these events.”
“Clostridium difficile is the causal agent of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and is a leading cause of hospital-acquired infections in the US. C. difficile has been known to cause severe diarrhea and colitis for more than 30 years, but the emergence of a newer, hypervirulent strain of C. difficile (BI/NAP1) has further compounded the problem, and recently both the number of cases and mortality associated with C. difficile-associated diarrhea have been increasing. One of the major drivers of disease pathogenesis is believed

to be an excessive host inflammatory Z-IETD-FMK purchase response. A better understanding of the host inflammation and immune mechanisms that modulate the course of disease and control host susceptibility to C. difficile could lead to novel (host-targeted) strategies for combating the challenges posed by this deadly infection. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the host inflammatory response during C. difficile infection.”
“Faces

play an important role in social interaction by conveying information and emotion. Of the various components of the face, color particularly provides important clues with regard to perception of age, sex, health status, and attractiveness. In event-related potential (ERP) studies, the N170 component has been identified as face-selective. To determine the effect of color on face processing, we investigated the modulation of N170 by facial color. We out recorded ERPs while subjects viewed facial color stimuli at 8 hue angles, which were generated by rotating the original facial color distribution around the white point by 450 for each human face. Responses to facial color were localized to the left, but not to the right hemisphere. N170 amplitudes gradually increased in proportion to the increase in hue angle from the natural-colored face. This suggests that N170 amplitude in the left hemisphere reflects processing of facial color information. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We investigated 20 adult patients with ADHD and 20 age-matched healthy controls. We found significantly smaller GMV in the right and left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) but no GMV/WMV difference in the PFC, hippocampus and amygdala. No correlation was found between ADHD behavioral measures and MRI data. Our results might suggest that adults with ADHD exhibit smaller GMV in the ACC, as measured by VBM. Volumetric abnormalities in the brain of adult ADHD patients might be less pronounced than those found in SNS-032 children and adolescents, although the role played by chronic stimulant treatment

needs further investigation. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“We report here the complete genomic sequence of a novel Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain, egret/China/Guangxi/2011, isolated from an egret in Guangxi Province, southern China. A phylogenetic analysis based on a fusion gene comparison with different NDV strains revealed that egret/China/Guangxi/2011 was phylogenetically close to genotype VIIa NDV, and the deduced amino acid sequence was R-112-R-R-K-R-F-117 at the fusion protein cleavage site. The whole nucleotide sequence had the highest homology (93.3%)

with the sequence of strain chicken/Sukorejo/019/10 (GenBank accession number HQ697255). This study will help us to understand the epidemiology and molecular characteristics of Newcastle disease virus in a migratory egret.”
“Therapeutic interventions that incorporate training in mindfulness meditation have become increasingly selleck chemical Endodeoxyribonuclease popular, but to date little is known about neural

mechanisms associated with these interventions. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), one of the most widely used mindfulness training programs, has been reported to produce positive effects on psychological well-being and to ameliorate symptoms of a number of disorders. Here, we report a controlled longitudinal study to investigate pre-post changes in brain gray matter concentration attributable to participation in an MBSR program. Anatomical magnetic resonance (MR) images from 16 healthy, meditation-naive participants were obtained before and after they underwent the 8-week program. Changes in gray matter concentration were investigated using voxel-based morphometry, and compared with a waiting list control group of 17 individuals. Analyses in a priori regions of interest confirmed increases in gray matter concentration within the left hippocampus. Whole brain analyses identified increases in the posterior cingulate cortex, the temporo-parietal junction, and the cerebellum in the MBSR group compared with the controls. The results suggest that participation in MBSR is associated with changes in gray matter concentration in brain regions involved in learning and memory processes, emotion regulation, self-referential processing, and perspective taking. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

We propose a simple model to explain the interaural coupling effects and IPD modulation of LLD activity, and conclude that the modulation of neuronal activity by IPD may improve ILD processing and the direction sensitivity of LLD neurons to the contralateral ear, compensating for the small ILD cues. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights Blasticidin S reserved.”
“Purpose: Confocal laser endomicroscopy is a new endoscopic imaging technology that could complement white light

cystoscopy by providing in vivo bladder histopathology. We evaluated confocal laser endomicroscopy by imaging normal, malignant appearing and indeterminate bladder mucosa in a pilot study.

Materials and Methods: Patients scheduled to undergo transurethral resection of bladder

tumors were recruited during a 3-month period. After standard cystoscopy fluorescein was administered intravesically and/or intravenously as a contrast dye. A 2.6 mm probe based confocal laser endomicroscope was passed through a 26Fr resectoscope to image normal and abnormal appearing areas. The images were collected with 488 nm excitation at 8 to 12 frames per second. The endomicroscopic images were compared with standard hematoxylin and eosin analysis of transurethral resection of bladder tumor specimens.

Results: Of the 27 recruited patients 8 had no cancer, 9 had low grade tumors, 9 had high grade tumors and I had a low grade tumor with see more a high grade focus. Endomicroscopic images demonstrated clear differences between normal mucosa, and low and high grade tumors. In normal urothelium larger umbrella cells are seen most superficially followed by smaller intermediate cells and the less cellular lamina propria. In contrast, low grade papillary tumors demonstrate densely arranged but normal-shaped small cells extending outward from fibrovascular cores. High grade tumors show markedly irregular architecture and cellular pleomorphism.

Conclusions:

We report the first study to our knowledge DAPT chemical structure of in vivo confocal laser endomicroscopy in the urinary tract. Marked differences among normal urothelium, low grade tumors and high grade tumors were visualized. Pending further clinical investigation and technological improvement, confocal laser endomicroscopy may become a useful adjunct to conventional cystoscopy.”
“Residues 61-95 of the non-amyloid component (NAC(61-95)) domain of alpha-synuclein are responsible for the aggregation and neurotoxicity of this protein. This study evaluated the effect of N-(omega)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, on the behavior of rats bilaterally injected into the CA3 area of the dorsal hippocampus with aggregated NAC(61-95). Twenty-four male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to respond under an alternating-lever cyclic-ratio (ALCR) operant schedule.

Learning and memory were evaluated in TS and CO mice after both treatments in the Morris water maze. Donepezil administration did not modify learning and memory

in animals of any genotype. On the other hand, PTZ administration rescued TS performance in the Morris water maze. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“In this study we employed multiscale entropy (MSE) measurement to assess www.selleckchem.com/products/pd-0332991-palbociclib-isethionate.html the long-range temporal correlation (LRTC) of multifibre renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) signals in conscious and anaesthetized Wistar rats, It was found that both groups presented more complex MSE profiles than an uncorrelated process. Moreover, the results of MSE analysis of RSNA demonstrated that the entropy check details values, derived from the conscious group, increased on small time scales and then stabilized to a relatively constant value, however, the entropy measure, derived from animals with anaesthesia, almost monotonically decreased. The present study shows that while LRTC in the temporal dynamics of energy fluctuations of RSNA does not implicate a unique mechanism, the data for the first time provide evidence of much less temporal correlation in anaesthetized condition. This suggests the fractal properties of underlying dynamical system have been effectively eliminated by anaesthesia. These results demonstrate

that apparently random fluctuations in multifibre RSNA are dictated by a complex deterministic process that imparts “”long-term”" memory to the dynamic system. However, this memory is significantly weakened by anaesthesia.

(c) 2008 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.”
“Antidepressants have been widely used to treat neuropathic pain for many years. However, the mechanisms of their analgesic actions are little known and remain controvertible. Recent studies indicate that cytokines in central nervous system (CNS) play a critical role in the pathological states of pain. The present study was designed to explore the effects and most appropriate dosage of mirtazapine in treating neuropathic pain and its possible neuroimmune mechanisms. L5 spinal nerve Phosphoprotein phosphatase transection was done to produce hyperalgesia in rats. Mirtazapine (10, 20 and 30 mg/kg, respectively) was orally administered daily for 14 days, beginning from the 5th day after nerve transection. Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia was measured using Von-Frey filament and Hargreaves tests before and after the surgery. Rats were then sacrificed on days 3, 7, 14, 21 post-administration. The inflammatory cytokines production such as TNF alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-10 and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) activity in brain was quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). We found that mirtazapine (20 and 30 mg/kg) can markedly attenuate mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia produced by nerve transection, most significantly on the 14th day.

(C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“A 13-amino acid peptide named neuronostatin (NST) encoded

in the somatostatin pro-hormone has been recently reported. It is produced throughout the Etomoxir in vivo body, particularly in brain areas that have significant actions over the metabolic and autonomic regulation. The present study was performed in order to elucidate the functional role of NST on memory, anxiety-like behavior and food intake and the hippocampal participation in these effects. When the peptide was intra-hippocampally administered at 3.0 nmol/mu l, it impaired memory retention in both, object recognition and step-down test. Also, this dose blocked the hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) generation. When NST was intra-hippocampally administered at 0.3 nmol/mu l and 3.0 nmol/mu l, anxiolytic effects were observed. Also, the administration

in the third ventricle at the higher dose (3.0 nmol/mu l) induced similar effects, and both doses reduced food intake. The main result of the present study is the relevance of the hippocampal formation in the behavioral effects induced by NST, and these effects Pitavastatin nmr could be associated to a reduced hippocampal synaptic plasticity. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The four-year oscillations of the number of spawning sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) that return to their native stream within the Fraser River basin in Canada are a striking example of population oscillations. The period of the oscillation corresponds to the dominant generation time of these fish. Various-not fully convincing-explanations for these oscillations have been proposed, including stochastic influences, depensatory fishing, or genetic effects. Here, we show that the oscillations can be explained as an attractor of the population dynamics, resulting from a strong resonance near a Neimark Sacker bifurcation. This explains not only the long-term persistence of these oscillations, but also reproduces correctly the empirical sequence of salmon abundance within one period of the oscillations.

Furthermore, it explains the observation that these oscillations occur only in sockeye stocks originating from large oligotrophic lakes, and that they are usually not observed in salmon species that have a longer generation buy Carfilzomib time. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that regulate cell migration and are thought to play an important role in a broad range of inflammatory diseases. The availability of chemokine receptor blockers makes them an important therapeutic target. In vitro, chemokines are shown to modulate neurotransmission. However, it is not very clear if chemokines play a role in behavior and cognition. Here we evaluated the role of CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) in various behavioral tasks in mice using Wt (Ccr5(+/+)) and Ccr5-null (Ccr5(-/-)) mice. Ccr5(-/-) mice showed enhanced social recognition.

In conclusion, we provide further evidence for prostate

cancer tumor heterogeneity with the identification of multiple concurrent gene rearrangements. Laboratory Investigation (2011) 91, 404-412; doi: 10.1038/labinvest.2010.179; published online 25 October 2010″
“1,2-diacylglycerol lipase alpha (DAGL alpha) this website is responsible for the biosynthesis and release of 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), the most abundant endocannabinoid in the brain. Although its expression has been detected in discrete regions, we showed here an integrated description of the distribution of DAGL alpha mRNA and protein in the rat forebrain using in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemistry. As novelty, we described the distribution of DAGL alpha protein expression in the olfactory system, the rostral migratory stream, neocortex, septum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. Similar DAGL alpha immunostaining pattern was also found in the brain of wild-type, but not of DAGL alpha knockout mice. lmmunohistochemical data were correlated by the identification of DAGL alpha mRNA

expression, for instance, in the somata of specific cells in olfactory structures, rostral migratory stream and neocortex, selleck inhibitor cells in some septal-basal-amygdaloid areas and the medial habenula, and magnocellular cells of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. This widespread neuronal distribution of DAGL alpha is consistent with multiple roles for endocannabinoids in synaptic plasticity, including presynaptic inhibition of neurotransmitter release. We discuss our comparative analysis of the forebrain expression patterns of DAGL alpha and other Ceramide glucosyltransferase components of the endocannabinoid signaling system, including the CB1 receptor, monoacylglyceride lipase (MAGL), and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), providing some insight into the potential physiological and behavioral roles of this system. (C) 2011 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All

rights reserved.”
“The development of proliferative podocytopathies has been linked to ligation of tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) expressed on the renal parenchyma; however, the TNFR2-positive cells within the kidney responsible for podocyte injury are unknown. We detected de novo expression of TNFR2 on podocytes before hyperplastic injury in crescentic glomerulonephritis of mice with nephrotoxic nephritis, and in collapsing glomerulopathy of Tg26(HIV/nl) mice, kd/kd mice, and human beings. We further found that serum levels of soluble TNF-alpha and TNFR2 correlated significantly with renal injury in Tg26(HIV/nl) mice. Thus, we asked whether ligand binding of TNFR2 on podocytes ex vivo precipitates the characteristic proliferative and pro-inflammatory diseased podocyte phenotypes. Soluble TNF-alpha activated NF-kappa B and dose-dependently induced podocyte proliferation, marked by the expression of the podocyte G(1) cyclin and NF-kappa B target gene, cyclin D1.

Acetic acid and 1-propanol contents were different between factories and indicated seasonal changes, with increases in warm seasons compared to cool seasons. Both differences

and similarities existed among the bacterial communities from each factory and product season. Lactobacillus parabuchneri was found in the products from three of four factories. Various sourdough lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were identified in commercial TMR silage; Lactobacillus panis, Lactobacillus hammesii, Lactobacillus mindensis, Lactobacillus pontis, Lactobacillus frumenti and Lactobacillus farciminis were detected in many products. Moreover, changes owing to product season were distinctive, and Lact. pontis and Lact. frumenti became detectable in summer products.

Conclusion:

Sourdough LAB are involved in the ensiling of commercial TMR silage. Silage bacterial communities vary more by season Cell Cycle inhibitor than by factory. The LAB species Lact. parabuchneri was detected in the TMR silage but may not be essential to the product’s long bunk life after silo opening.

Significance and Impact of the Study:

Commercial TMR silage resembles sourdough with respect to bacterial communities and long shelf life. The roles of sourdough LAB in the ensiling

process and aerobic stability are worth examining.”
“Abtract

Aims:

Monitoring the occurrence of the human pathogen Vibrio vulnificus in a mussel farm located in the lagoon of Varano (Italy).

Methods and Results:

A total of 72 samples of mussel, water and sediment, collected from two locations of Rigosertib ic50 Varano lagoon in the Gargano peninsula,

during a 7- month survey, were analysed. Isolation and PCR characterization of six V. vulnificus environmental genotype strains revealed that this pathogen was isolated when with T was above 22 degrees C and salinity ranged between 22 center dot 7 and 26 center dot 4 parts per thousand. No significant correlation of the occurrence of V. vulnificus with water pH or salinity was observed. Moreover, 8% of mussel samples were found to be contaminated by V. vulnificus. All of that positive mussel samples originated from the same sampling station.

Conclusion:

It is suggested that Clomifene warmer season are risky to eat raw or undercooked bivalve molluscs in the local area.

Significance and Impact of the Study:

To increase knowledge about environmental conditions that may affect the occurrence of waterborne pathogen Vibrio vulnificus in seafood.”
“BACKGROUND: Transoral odontoidectomy and resection of the anterior C1 arch destabilize the atlantoaxial joint and risk its stability.

OBJECTIVE: To preserve stability in such cases we devised and evaluated a proof-ofconcept study. The arch and dens were dissected and decompression was performed on cadavers. The dens was replaced with an odontoid screw, and the C1 arch was replaced with a rib-graft substitute using miniplates.

Where ventricular septation was not possible, definitive repair was considered to include pulmonary artery reconstruction and a right ventricle-pulmonary artery conduit or systemic shunt. Native pulmonary artery morphology was classified into confluent intrapericardial (n = 139), confluent intrapulmonary (n = 51), and nonconfluent intrapulmonary (n 26).

Results: A total of 203 patients (85%) had definitive repair at a median age of 2.0 years. There was no statistically significant difference check details in survival after complete repair among the 3 morphologic pulmonary artery groups (P = .18). A total of 132 patients (56%) had complete repair with ventricular septal

defect closure, as a single procedure in 111 patients see more and a staged procedure in 21 patients. Focalization of major aortopulmonary collateral arteries with proven long-term patency with the right ventricle was associated with a survival benefit compared with 14 patients in whom unifocalization was not possible and who had only systemic shunts. Overall survival was 89% at 3 years after definitive repair. During

follow-up, 190 patients required 196 catheter reinterventions and 60 surgical reinterventions.

Conclusion: By using a strategy of unifocalization, intrapericardial pulmonary artery reconstruction, and right ventricle-pulmonary artery conduit, excellent long-term survival can be achieved in this group of patients even in the absence of native intrapericardial pulmonary arteries. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2009; 138: 1269-75)”
“The current study tested the assumption that bilinguals with dementia regress to using primarily the dominant language. Spanish-English bilinguals with probable Alzheimer’s disease (AD; n=29), and matched bilingual controls (n = 42) named Boston Naming Test pictures in their dominant and nondominant languages. Surprisingly, differences between patients and controls were larger using dominant-language

than nondominant-language naming scores, and bilinguals with AD were either more likely than controls (in English-dominant bilinguals), or equally likely (in Spanish-dominant bilinguals), to name some pictures in the nondominant Clomifene language that they could not produce in their dominant language. These findings suggest that dominant language testing may provide the best assessment of language deficits in bilingual AD, and argue against the common notion that the nondominant language is particularly susceptible to dementia. The greater vulnerability of the dominant language may reflect the increased probability of AD affecting richer semantic representations associated with dominant compared to nondominant language names. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Objective: Borderline left heart disease is characterized by left heart obstructive lesions (coarctation, aortic and mitral stenoses, left ventricular hypoplasia) and endocardial fibroelastosis.

Prepulse intervals ranged from 10 to 120 ms. Further

tests evaluated the effects of PAP on spontaneous locomotion, AMPH (1 mg/kg)-induced hyperlocomotion, and core body temperature (TA degrees).

HAL reversed APO-induced PPI deficits but PAP failed to reverse APO- and AMPH-induced PPI deficits at all doses, strains, pretreatment times, and prepulse intervals. PAP (30 mg/kg) significantly reduced AMPH hyperlocomotion in SD rats, and a similar pattern was detected in WI rats. This PAP dose also strongly reduced spontaneous locomotion and TA degrees in SD rats.

Our study does not support an antipsychotic-like profile of PAP in dopaminergic PPI models.”
“Background/Aims: Cardiac valve calcification (CVC) and left ventricular (LV) abnormalities are common indicators of a poor prognosis in dialysis patients. We determined the prevalence learn more of hypertension, CVC, LV hypertrophy (LVH) and LV geometry in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Methods: Eighty-seven patients (50 female; mean Pritelivir order age 42 +/- 13 years; mean dialysis duration 46 +/- 24 months) on strict salt and volume restriction, none of whom were receiving antihypertensives, were included in the study.

Blood pressure (BP), biochemical parameters, CVC, LVH and LV geometry were determined. Results: Most patients were normotensive. CVC of the mitral and aortic valves and of both valves were noted in 22, 23 and 15% of patients, respectively. Patients with CVC had significantly higher diastolic BP (p = 0.023), cardiothoracic index (CTI; p = 0.037) and LV mass index (LVMI; p = 0.002). LVH, noted overall in 44% of cases, was present (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate in 62 and 36% of the patients with and without CVC, respectively (p = 0.028). Of the whole group, only 50.6% had normal LV geometry. LVH was associated with lower serum albumin (p = 0.002), higher CTI (p = 0.027) and more frequent CVC (p = 0.028). LVMI was greater in patients with CVC (p = 0.002). Conclusion: Strict salt restriction and the achievement of ideal dry weight result in normotension

in PD patients. CVC is associated with LVH, both of which are lower in normotensive patients. Copyright (C) 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel”
“It has become evident that many human disorders are characterised by mitochondrial dysfunction either at a primary level, due to mutations in genes whose encoded products are involved in oxidative phosphorylation, or at a secondary level, due to the accumulation of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations. This has prompted keen interest in the development of cell and animal models and in exploring innovative therapeutic strategies to modulate the mitochondrial deficiencies observed in these diseases. Key advances in these areas are outlined in this review, with a focus on Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON). This exciting field is set to grow exponentially and yield many candidate therapies to treat this class of disease.