v. injection. The mean C(0) was 20.5 mu g/mL (+/- 8.8) immediately after i.v. administration. The C(max) was 0.6 mu g/mL (+/- 0.36) at T(max) 1.46 (+/- 0.66) h after the administration of oral ciprofloxacin. The mean elimination half-life after i.v. administration was 5.8 (+/- 1.6) h, and after oral administration the terminal half-life was 3.6 (+/- 1.7) h. The overall mean systemic availability of the oral dose was 10.5 (+/- 2.8)%. Transient

adverse effects of mild to moderate severity included agitation, excitement and muscle fasciculation, followed by selleck chemicals llc lethargy, cutaneous edema and loss of appetite developed in all seven horses after i.v. administration. All seven horses developed mild transient diarrhea at 36-48 after i.v. dosing. All eight horses dosed intragastrically experienced adverse events attributable to ciprofloxacin administration. Adverse events included mild transient diarrhea to severe colitis, endotoxemia and laminitis necessitating euthanasia of three horses on humane grounds. The high incidences of adverse events preclude oral and rapid i.v. push administration of ciprofloxacin.”
“The

use of gibberellic acid (GA(3)) and N, N-dimethyl piperidinium chloride (DPC) in combination with prometryn would likely increase the control of black nightshade in cotton fields. Experiments were designed to investigate the physiological and biochemical responses of black nightshade at the three-to four-leaf stage to prometryn applied at different rates,

either alone or in combination with GA(3) or DPC, in a greenhouse environment. These studies demonstrated that prometryn applied in combination with DPC at low selleck kinase inhibitor rates (7.2 g ai ha(-1)) led to increased fresh weight and visible injury of black nightshade compared with prometryn applied alone or in combination with GA(3); however, at rates of 36, 180, and 900 g ai ha(-1), prometryn in combination with DPC caused the least visible injury among all treatments and prometryn in combination with GA(3) caused the greatest visible injury. These results suggest that black nightshade suffered click here more severe damage when prometryn was applied in combination with GA(3), which is supported by the reduced soluble protein content, lower antioxidant enzyme activities, and higher malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the plants treated with prometryn plus GA(3). These results indicate that the application of GA(3) in combination with prometryn to black nightshade may have the potential to lower the levels of prometryn tolerance in these plants.”
“Objective. Significant reductions in gynecologic (GYN) cancer mortality and morbidity require treatments that prevent and reverse resistance to chemotherapy and radiation. The objective of this study was to determine if pharmacologic inhibition of key DNA damage response kinases in GYN cancers would enhance cell killing by platinum-based chemotherapy and radiation. Methods.

Consistent with our previous observations, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) protein levels in the medial septum decreased by 43.5% 2 weeks after OBX without changes in glutamic acid decarboxylase-65

(GAD65) levels. Interestingly, levels of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), which is localized at cholinergic neuron terminals, decreased both in hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions following OBX. Confocal microscopy showed that VAChT expression was more severely reduced in CA3 14 days after OBX compared MK-2206 solubility dmso with CA1. Intriguingly, chronic treatment with a vanadium (IV) compound, VO(OPT) [bis(1-N-oxide-pyridine-2-thiolato)oxovanadium(IV)] (0.5-1 mg as vanadium (V)/kg/day, i.p.), significantly rescued cholinergic neurons in the medial septum in a dose-dependent manner. VO(OPT) treatment also prevented decreased VAChT immunoreactivity both in CA1 and CA3 regions in the hippocampus. Consistent with these findings, an impaired hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) and

memory deficits seen in OBX mice were significantly prevented by VO(OPT) treatment. Taken together, OBX induces neurodegeneration of septo-hippocampal cholinergic neurons and impairment of memory-related behaviors. The neuroprotective selleck inhibitor effect of VO(OPT) could lead to novel therapeutic strategies to ameliorate cognitive deficits associated with cholinergic neuron degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. (c) 2007 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Upon SNX-5422 mw rapid injection, a variety of thiocarbonyl compounds react with the Gilman reagent Me(2)CuLi at -100 degrees C inside the probe of an NMR spectrometer to give high yields of complexes. Typical examples of substrates include carbon disulfide, methyl dithio-acetate, methyl dithiobenzoate, thiobenzophenone,

ethylene trithiocarbonate, and phenyl isothiocyanate. Evidence suggesting the formal oxidation state of copper in these complexes to be CO is presented. The last example was particularly interesting, since it involved a transient intermediate that was identified as a complex with a C-N double bond. Methyl isothiocyanate gave a stable C-N double-bond complex.”
“A series of novel N-phenylbenzamide derivatives were synthesized and their anti-EV 71 activities were assayed in vitro. Among the compounds tested, 3-amino-N-(4-bromophenyl)-4-methoxybenzamide (1e) was active against the EV 71 strains tested at low micromolar concentrations, with IC50 values ranging from 5.7 +/- 0.8-12 +/- 1.2 mu M, and its cytotoxicity to Vero cells (TC50 = 620 +/- 0.0 mu M) was far lower than that of pirodavir (TC50 = 31 +/- 2.2 mu M). Based on these results, compound 1e is a promising lead compound for the development of anti-EV 71 drugs.

ERP data

in the form of N1 amplitude was modulated within some irrelevant sound conditions suggesting that attentional aspects BAY 57-1293 concentration are involved in the elicitation of the irrelevant sound effect. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Although urban areas are often considered to have uniformly negative effects on biodiversity, cities are most accurately characterized as heterogeneous mosaics of buildings, streets, parks, and gardens that include both good’ and bad’ areas for wildlife. However, to date, few studies have evaluated how human impacts vary in direction and magnitude across a heterogeneous urban landscape. In this study, we assessed the distribution of floral resources and flower-visiting insects across a variety of land uses in New York City. We visited both green spaces (e.g. parks, cemeteries) and heavily developed neighborhood blocks (e.g. with high or low density residential zoning) and used structural equation modeling (SEM) to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of median income, vegetation, and development intensity on floral resources and insects in both settings. Abundance Selleckchem CA3 and taxonomic richness of flower-visiting

insects was significantly greater in green spaces than neighborhood blocks. The SEM results indicated that heavily-developed neighborhoods generally had fewer flower-visiting insects consistent with reductions in floral resources. However, some low-density residential neighborhoods maintained high levels of floral resources and flower-visiting insects. We found that the effects of surrounding vegetation on floral resources, and thus indirect effects on insects, varied considerably GS-9973 nmr between green spaces and neighborhood blocks. Along neighborhood blocks, vegetation consisted of a mosaic of open gardens and sparsely distributed trees and had a positive indirect effect on flower-visiting insects. In contrast, vegetation in urban green spaces was associated with increased canopy cover and thus had a negative indirect effect on flower-visiting insects through

reductions in floral resources. In both neighborhood blocks and green spaces, vegetation had a positive direct effect on flower-visiting insects independent of the influence of vegetation on floral resources. Our results demonstrate how inter-related components of an urban ecosystem can vary with respect to one another across a heterogeneous urban landscape, suggesting that it is inappropriate to generalize about urban systems as a whole without first addressing differences among component land use types.”
“The purpose of this case report is to describe the regression of vascular calcifications (VC) in a patient with secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) after having added cinacalcet to her treatment.

The enzyme was active and stable at acidic pH, it exhibited 83% of its maximal activity at pH 6.0 and retained 88% of the original activity after incubation at pH 6.0 for 24 h. Kinetic parameter study showed that the catalytic efficiency was relatively high, with a k(cat)/K(m) of 9.02 mM(-1) min(-1) for D-galactose. The purified L fermentum CGMCC2921 L-AI converted D-galactose into D-tagatose with a high conversion rate of 55% with 1 mM Mn(2+) after 12 h at 65 degrees C, suggesting its excellent potential in D-tagatose

production. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier B.V.”
“Background: There have been few reports regarding cardiac strain in children. The present study was performed to determine the reference values for circumferential and radial strains of the left ventricle in normal children and discern the relative influence of aging and cardiac Curaxin 137 HCl growth on these left ventricular functional indices.\n\nMethods: The study

population consisted of 180 children (aged 2 months to 21 years) who had normal cardiac function and normal cardiac load. None of the patients had Stem Cell Compound Library symptoms, and none was receiving medical therapy. 2D cine-loop recordings of short-axis views at the papillary muscle level were stored for off-line analysis. Custom acoustic-tracking software was used to measure left ventricular strain. Continuous variables are reported as mean values +/- standard deviation. The correlation coefficients were calculated to identify the relative influences of aging on the strains. Tukey’s test was used to assess differences in strain among the six-myocardial segments. In all analyses, p < 0.01 was taken to indicate statistical significance.\n\nResults and conclusions:

The strains of all segments could be analyzed in 136 of 180 children. There were no significant age-related changes in circumferential or radial strain in children, but regional heterogeneity in left ventricular strain. The circumferential and radial strains showed inverse distributions; the circumferential strain in the region with low radial strain was high, and that in the region with high radial strain Cl-amidine mw was low. These observations indicated there are differences among the three-dimensional movements of the regions. (C) 2012 Japanese College of Cardiology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The paper deals with color changes and wood component changes caused by laser beam irradiation. A 500 mm x 150 mm x 15 mm beech (Fagus sylvatica, L) board was irradiated by the CO2 laser beam at different exposures (expressed as the irradiation dose). The color changes were measured by the spectrophotometer and described in the CIELAB color system. Changes in the main wood components were observed by the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and carbohydrates were analysed by the gas chromatography of their aldonitrilacetates.

In 20 healthy

participants, VSEP measurement was done by electrical stimulation of the cutaneous representation of the vagus nerve in the external auditory channel and recording of VSEP over the scalp. The optimum stimulation intensity is 8 mA without perception of pain. There is no effect of stimulation side or gender. Maximum VSEP amplitudes are detected at bipolar recordings comprising the electrode T4 without statistically significant differences of latencies, wave shape and polarity. Thus, recordings of future examinations should be performed at 8 mA including this temporal electrode position. The reason for focussing on brain stem evoked potentials is that recent work has accumulated evidence for this area being involved in early phases of neurodegenerative p38 MAPK inhibitor review diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Improved methodological knowledge

may facilitate the assessment of this non-invasive and cost-effective method in the early diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders.”
“OBJECTIVE: To estimate the risk for nodal metastasis in women with endometrial cancer based on uterine characteristics on pathology.\n\nMETHODS: From a study of staging for uterine cancer, women were identified as being at low risk for nodal metastasis based Nepicastat on three specific criteria on final pathology reports: 1) less than 50% invasion, 2) tumor size less than 2 cm, and 3) well or moderately differentiated endometrioid GDC-0068 clinical trial histology. If the uterine specimen did not meet all three criteria, it was viewed as high risk for nodal metastasis.\n\nRESULTS: Nine hundred seventy-one women were included in this analysis. Approximately 40% (or 389 of 971) of patients in this study were found to be at low risk, with a rate of nodal metastasis of only

0.8% (3 of 389; exact 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.16-2.2). No statistical differences in median age, body mass index, race, performance status, missing clinical data, or open or minimally invasive techniques were found among the patients with and without nodal metastases. Patients with high-risk characteristics of their uterine specimens compared with those with low-risk characteristics have 6.3 times the risk of nodal metastasis (95% CI 1.67-23.8, P=.007).\n\nCONCLUSION: Low-risk endometrioid uterine cancer criteria may be used to help guide treatment planning for reoperation in patients with incomplete surgical staging information. (Obstet Gynecol 2072;119:286-92) DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e318240de51″
“ACADEMIC EMERGENCY MEDICINE 2012; 19:11191126 (C) 2012 by the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine Abstract Objectives: The objective was to determine if focused transthoracic echocardiography (echo) can be used during resuscitation to predict the outcome of cardiac arrest. Methods: A literature search of diagnostic accuracy studies was conducted using MEDLINE via PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library databases.

DOI: 10.1644/09-MAMM-A-143.1.”
“Even though many studies have focused on identifying the effects of NH(4)(+)-N on various aspects of wetland systems, there have been very few GSK2126458 clinical trial attempts to quantify the overall impact of NH(4)(+)-N concentration on NO(3)(-)-N removal efficiency. Consequently, this research was conducted to investigate the effects of influent NH(4)(+)-N (2-10 mgl(-1)) and NO(3)(-)-N (2-6 mgl(-1)) concentrations on NO(3)(-)-N removal efficiency and growth inhibition concentrations of Egeria densa Planch. Mass balance for NH(4)(+)-N removal was done to quantify the nitrified NH(4)(+)-N in order to incorporate total NO(3)(-)-N concentration for the non-linear

regression analysis. The NO(3)(-)-N and total nitrogen removal efficiencies were significantly varied at three different NO(3)(-)-N concentrations (p < 0.05). Data on oxygen consumption Elafibranor in vivo during dark respiration (0.25-0.48 mgl(-1) hr(-1) g(-1) of dry weight biomass) and final biomass (0.17-0.24 g) variations revealed that the lowest growth inhibition concentration of NH(4)(+)-N on E. densa could be 4 mgl(-1). Non-linear regression analysis established a positive correlation (r(2) = 0.97) between influent NH(4)(+)-N concentration and NO(3)(-)-N removal efficiency within the analysed range of NH(4)(+)-N (0-4 mgl(-1)). Results suggest that NO(3)(-)-N removal

efficiency in submerged plant wetland systems could be improved by adding sufficient amounts of

NH(4)(+)-N to secondary treated wastewater.”
“In mammals, a normal offspring can be obtained even from infertile male by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Although ICSI technique has permitted significant progress in clinical practice in humans and mouse to date, it has been established recently in birds. In addition, efficiency of fertility and developmental rates has been low and no chick has been produced by in vitro PLX4032 purchase fertilization and culture. Furthermore, polyspermic fertilization and subsequent normal developmental processes remains unknown. The enhancement of fertility and developmental rates is the first step in the avian ICSI system to be applied for protection of endangered species and production of transgenic and clone birds. This review paper describes (1) the establishment of ICSI technique in Japanese quail, (2) molecular mechanisms whereby polyspermy activates development of quail oocyte, (3) improvement of ICSI efficiency by phospholipase C zeta cRNA. Also, possible application of ICSI for avian sex manipulation and transgenic birds was summarized.”
“Integrated ‘omics have been used on pure cultures and co-cultures, yet they have not been applied to complex microbial communities to examine questions of perturbation response.

The CNS and MSK mesenchymal chondrosarcoma predominantly affects adult females with poor prognosis. There are only subtle morphologic differences between the CNS and MSK groups. By immunohistochemistry, mesenchymal chondrosarcoma occasionally expresses aberrant desmin and EMA but is negative for SMA, myogenin MyoD1, GEAP, and keratins, refuting true smooth or skeletal muscle, epithelial, or meningothelial phenotype. Retained INI1 separates these tumors from atypical teratoid tumor. Despite marked female predominance in our series, estrogen receptor is negative in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma. Published by Elsevier Inc.”
“A 64-year-old

man with nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and a biventricular defibrillator presented with recurrent ventricular

fibrillation (VF) and defibrillator shocks. Evaluation of the intracardiac electrograms EVP4593 chemical structure from his defibrillator demonstrated the consistent initiation of VF by unifocal premature ventricular complexes (PVCs). Noncontact mapping demonstrated the origin of the PVC to be near the left ventricular outflow tract toward the mitral valve ring. Several applications of radiofrequency at this position led to complete cessation of PVCs and prevented further VF. He has not had any further ventricular arrhythmias or defibrillator discharges Selleck PR 171 during follow-up. (PACE 2011; 34:e38-e42).”
“The extreme cooling rates in material processing can be achieved in a number of GDC-0941 manufacturer current and emerging femtosecond laser techniques capable of highly localized energy deposition. The mechanisms of rapid solidification of a nanoscale region of a metal film transiently melted by a localized photoexcitation are investigated in a large-scale atomistic simulation. The small size of the melted region, steep temperature gradients, and fast two-dimensional electron heat conduction result in the cooling rate exceeding 10(13) K/s and create conditions for deep undercooling of the melt. The velocity of the liquid/crystal interface rises up to the maximum value of similar to 80 m/s during

the initial stage of the cooling process and stays approximately constant as the temperature of the melted region continues to decrease. When the temperature drops down to the level of similar to 0.6T(m), a massive homogeneous nucleation of the crystal phase inside the undercooled liquid region takes place and prevents the undercooled liquid from reaching the glass transition temperature. The prediction of the nanocrystalline structure of the surface features generated in laser nanoprocessing has implications for practical applications of nanostructured surfaces and calls for experimental verification of the computational results.”
“The incidence of allergic diseases is steadily increasing an urgent need to clarify the immunologic processes which occur early in life and signal an increased risk of possible future allergy development.

6%; range 77.6-95.1%)

to a level less than 30 mg aspirin.\n\nConclusions and implications: As alternatives are easily available, this website NSAIDs such as diclofenac should be preferred to ibuprofen for combined use with aspirin. British Journal of Pharmacology (2009) 157, 931-934; doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00243.x; published online 19 May 2009″
“Delayed transplantation of neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) into the injured spinal cord can promote functional recovery in adult rats and monkeys. To enhance the functional recovery after NS/PC transplantation, we focused on galectin-1, a carbohydrate-binding protein with pleiotropic roles in cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and neurite outgrowth. Here, to determine the combined therapeutic effect of NS/PC transplantation and galectin-1 on spinal cord injury (SCI), human NS/PCs were transfected by lentivirus

with galectin-1 and green fluorescent protein (GFP), (Gal-NS/PCs) or GFP alone (GFP-NS/PCs), expanded in vitro, and then transplanted into the spinal cord of adult common marmosets, 9 days after contusive cervical SCI. The animals’ motor function was evaluated by their spontaneous Pevonedistat chemical structure motor activity, bar grip power, and performance on a treadmill test. Histological analyses revealed that the grafted human NS/PCs survived and differentiated into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. There were significant differences in the myelinated area, corticospinal fibers, and serotonergic fibers among the Gal-NS/PC, GFP-NS/PC, vehicle-control, and sham-operated groups. The Gal-NS/PC-grafted animals showed a better performance on all the behavioral tests compared with the other groups. These findings suggest that Gal-NS/PCs

have better therapeutic potential than NS/PCs for SCI in nonhuman primates and that human Gal-NS/PC transplantation GSK1210151A mouse might be a feasible treatment for human SCI. (C) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.”
“Deg5 is a serine-type protease peripherally attached to luminal side of thylakoid membrane. Given the lack of knowledge concerning its function homozygous T-DNA insertion line depleted in Deg5 was prepared to study the functional importance of this protease in Arabidopsis thaliana. deg5 mutants displayed a pleiotropic phenotype with regard to fourth whorl leaves of four-weeks old plants. The alterations involved an increased leaf area, reduced leaf thickness, reduced cross-sectional area of palisade mesophyll cells as well as changed chloroplast ultrastructure including lack of signs of entering the senescence phase (e.g. presence of much smaller plastoglobules) and the accumulation of large starch grains at the end of the dark period.

All patients were clinically classified as GSDIa. Mutation analysis of the G6PC gene

revealed that all patients carried biallelic G6PC mutations (p.Ile341Asn, p.Ala274Val, p.Phe80Ile, p.Gly118Asp, p.Arg83His, c.262delG, and c.648G bigger than T). Of the seven different mutations identified, three were found to be novel. All of the novel mutations were missense (p.Ala274Val, Cilengitide in vivo p.Phe80Ile, and p.Gly118Asp). The c.262delG mutation which leads to a frame-shift and truncated forms of glucose-6-phosphatase was present in three unrelated patients (one homozygote and two heterozygotes). Conclusion: By direct DNA sequencing, three novel G6PC variations were identified which expanded the G6PC mutation spectrum, and provided conclusive genetic evidences for the definitive diagnosis of the Chinese patients.”
“Multifunctional mesoporous solid acids were prepared by the sulfonation of carbonized de-oiled seed waste cake (DOWC), a solid waste from biodiesel production. Detailed structural characterization of the materials by elemental analysis, FT-IR, Raman, XRD, XPS, TGA, NH3-TPD and N-2-physisorption

showed that they were structurally different from the carbohydrate and resin based sulfonated carbon catalysts. In addition to the typical -OH, -COOH and -SO3H groups they contain several N species (pyridinic, pyrrolic etc.) incorporated in their carbon frameworks. The basic structural unit of these materials is a flexible carbon nitride sheet which is extensively functionalized selleck chemicals with acidic groups. Our results show distinct effects of raw material composition and preparation methods (activation, sulfonating agent etc.) on structure, stability, surface acidity and textural properties. Here, catalyst -SO3H density and porosity (pore size, pore volume and surface area) had a direct effect on activity. Also, H2SO4 was less useful than 4-BDS (4-benzenediazoniumsulfoante) as a sulfonating agent. The best catalysts with mesoporous structure (average pore diameter 3.9-4.8 nm, pore volume 0.28-0.46 cm(3) g(-1)) and -SO3H density (0.70-0.84 mmol/g(cat)) were obtained by 4-BDS sulfonation of chemically activated

DOWCs. In contrast, hydrothermal H2SO4 sulfonation of DOWC produced a non-porous catalyst with high -SO3H density Ruboxistaurin mw while those obtained by H2SO4 treatment of activated biomass (AC) had a porous structure with low -SO3H density (0.19 mmol/gcat). Furthermore, the reported catalysts show excellent activity in two reactions of interest in biomass conversion: cellulose saccharification (glucose yield 35-53%) and fatty acid esterification (conversion upto 97%) outperforming H2SO4, conventional solid acids (zeolites, ion-exchange resins etc.) as well as sulfonated carbons reported earlier works, confirming their potential as alternative environmentally benign solid catalysts for sustainable, carbon efficient biorefining. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Therefore, genotyping of patients before treatment is absolutely necessary.\n\nDevelopment of a fast and reliable real-time PCR application for TPMT genotyping would greatly improve thiopurine treatment regimens and allow the avoidance of adverse drug reactions.\n\nMethods: Blood was obtained from a Caucasian cohort

of 143 individuals. After extraction of DNA, all samples were genotyped for TPMT polymorphisms find more *2, *3A, *3B, and *3C by real-time PCR as well as by PCR-RFLP as the reference method, in order to validate the new method.\n\nResults: Four different genotypes were found in the population studied. Of the 143 individuals investigated, 1 was heterozygous for TPMT*2 (0.70%), 2 were heterozygous for TPMT*3B (1.40%), and 8 heterozygous for TPMT*3C (5.60%). No homozygous genotype could be identified. In total, 7.7% of the individuals carried mutations.

Results from the newly developed real-time PCR were 100% concordant with those obtained using standard PCR-RFLP analysis, leading to 100% sensitivity and specificity. The hands-on time is approximately one third of the time needed for standard PCR-RFLP methods.\n\nConclusions: A new high-throughput genotyping method could be successfully established and optimised for the commonly found mutant alleles TPMT*2 (G238C), TPMT*3A (G460A and A719G), TPMT*3B (G460A), and TPMT*3C (A719G) via real-time PCR on the LightCycler (R) (Roche) instrument and using the standard PCR-RFLP as reference method. (Clin. Lab. 2012;58:959-971.

www.selleckchem.com/products/frax597.html DOI: 10.7754/Clin.Lab.2011.111009)”
“Boron (B) slows the development of Plasmodiophora brassicae (clubroot) during infection of root hairs (primary infection) and the root cortex (secondary infection) of several vegetable Brassica spp., but the impact of B application on clubroot development in canola has not been assessed. The present study assessed the impact of B application Raf inhibition rates (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 kg ha(-1)), application timing, and commercial formulations of B (Solubor, BoronMax, Boron) on primary and secondary development of clubroot in canola. Under controlled conditions, increasing rates of B application reduced root hair infection and subsequent development of primary and secondary infection. However, phytotoxicity to canola seedlings occurred at rates higher than 2 kg B ha(-1). Application of 2 kg B ha(-1) reduced overall root hair infection only slightly, from 81% to 65%, but delayed the development of each stage of primary infection. There were no substantial differences in reduction of incidence and severity of the disease by B whether it was applied before root-hair infection (pre-emergence) or before cortical infection (post-emergence), or split into two applications (pre-emergence + post-emergence). All three formulations of B exhibited similar responses. In field trials, 4 kg ha(-1) was the most effective rate that produced no phytotoxic symptoms.