Naked DNA, usually in plasmid form, is the simplest form of non-viral transferring of a gene into a target cell [13–16]. Because of low transferring efficiency of a bare plasmid, several physical (electroporation, ultrasound, gas-filled micro-bubbles) and chemical (liposomes) approaches have been exploited to enhance their transformation efficiency [17]. In another type of classification, non-viral delivery vectors can be categorized as organic (lipid complexes, conjugated

polymers, cationic polymers, etc.) and inorganic (magnetic nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, etc.) systems [18]. Among the materials used to design non-viral vectors, attention has recently increased on the natural RG7112 mw biomaterials due to their unique properties such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and controlled release. The delivery carriers necessitate being small enough to be internalized into the cells

and enter the nucleus passing through the cytoplasm and escaping the endosome/lysosome process following endocytosis (Figure 1). The use of nanoparticles in gene delivery can provide both the targeted and sustained gene delivery by protecting the gene against nuclease degradation and improving its stability [19–22]. Figure 1 Internalization of non-viral vectors into cell and passage to nucleus through cytoplasm following endocytosis. Nanoparticles in gene delivery In the field of nanomedicine, GSK923295 ic50 nanotechnology methods focus on formulating therapeutic biocompatible agents such as nanoparticles, nanocapsules, micellar systems, and conjugates [22, 23]. Nanoparticles are solid and spherical structures ranging to selleck screening library around 100 nm in size and prepared from Bay 11-7085 natural or synthetic polymers [24]. To reach the large-size nucleic acid molecule, the cytoplasm, or even the

nucleus, a suitable carrier system is required to deliver genes to cells which enhance cell internalization and protect the DNA molecule from nuclease enzymatic degradation (e.g., virosomes, cationic liposomes, and nanoparticles). To achieve the suitable carrier system, the nanoparticles can be considered as a good candidate for therapeutic applications because of several following reasons: (1) They exist in the same size domain as proteins,(2) they have large surface areas and ability to bind to a large number of surface functional groups, and (3) they possess controllable absorption and release properties and particle size and surface characteristics [25]. Nanoparticles can also be coated with molecules to produce a hydrophilic layer at the surface (PEGylation) to increases their blood circulation half-life. Poloxamer, poloxamines, and chitosan have also been studied for surface modifications.

20 nm (two times higher

than for annealed one). The behavior of the layer deposited on heated glass (shift of the threshold for electrically continuous layer) is similar to those as-sputtered and then thermally annealed [15]. With further increase of the Au thickness, the pronounced decrease of R s is observed, with the minimum being achieved for the thicknesses above 35 nm both for annealed Au and Au deposited on heated substrate (see Figure 1). selleck compound Figure 1 Dependence of Au layer sheet resistance of evaporated samples deposited on BAY 63-2521 glass at different temperatures. The dependence of Au layer sheet resistance on the layer thickness measured for evaporated samples deposited on glass at room temperature (RT), deposited on substrate heated to 300°C (300°C) and deposited on glass with room temperature and consequently annealed at 300°C (annealing). Free carrier

volume concentration significantly affects the electrical conductance of materials. The dependence of the free carrier concentration on the Au layer thickness is shown in Figure 2. With the formation of an electrically continuous Au layer, the carrier concentration increases dramatically. The thickness for the transition to formation of R406 manufacturer electrically continuous layer is in a good correspondence with the measurement of R s (see Figures 1 and 2). The sharp increase of free carrier concentration is shifted for the Au layers prepared by evaporation onto the heated substrate (300°C) to 20 nm which is in accordance with the results in Figure 1. The increase of free carrier concentration was observed in the layer thickness of 10 nm for the annealed Au layers and slightly lower thickness for the Au evaporated by room temperature. This minor difference can be caused by the different morphologies of Au nanostructures influencing the transport of free carriers in Au nanolayers after annealing, which will be discussed in the next chapter. Figure 2 Dependence of free carrier volume concentration in Au layer deposited on glass at different temperatures. The dependence of free carrier volume concentration in Au layer Forskolin on the layer thickness measured for

evaporated samples deposited on glass at RT, deposited on substrate heated to 300°C (300°C) and deposited on glass with room temperature and consequently annealed at 300°C (annealing). Surface morphology The morphology of evaporated Au nanolayers of different thicknesses and their structures consequently annealed to 300°C is introduced in Figure 3. The surface morphology of electrically discontinuous (7 nm), electrically continuous (18 nm), and electrically continuous layer with minimum sheet resistance (35 nm) was chosen for the analysis. As it is obvious from Figure 3, the consequent thermal annealing leads to the significant increase of the surface roughness both for electrically continuous and discontinuous evaporated nanolayers.

Synthesis of trehalose by R. tropici CIAT 899 from different carbon sources The results presented so far indicated that trehalose is synthesized from mannitol-derived glucose via the OtsA-OtsB pathway in the four Rhizobium strains tested. We were interested to know if trehalose could be also synthesized from other carbon sources. For this purpose, R. tropici CIAT 899 was grown in 0.1 M NaCl MAS with glucose, galactose, mannose and mannitol and the accumulated compounds were analyzed by 1H NMR. Figure

8A-D shows that whereas the unknown sugar (later identified as a cyclic β-glucan) was synthesized from any of the tested carbon sources, trehalose was only accumulated when glucose, galactose or mannitol, but not mannose, was present in the culture medium. Figure 8 Synthesis of trehalose by R. tropici CIAT 899 from different carbon sources. 1H-NMR analysis of cellular extracts from R. tropici CIAT899 grown in 100 mM NaCl MAS Combretastatin A4 ic50 medium containing glucose

(A), galactose (B), mannose (C) or manitol (D) as a carbon source. T and Gl indicate the signals corresponding to the anomeric protons of the glucose units of trehalose and the cyclic glucan, respectively. (E) 13C-NMR spectra of intracellular solutes accumulated by R. tropici CIAT899 grown in 0.1 M NaCl MAS medium with 13C1/6 manitol as a carbon source. find more Abbreviations: T, trehalose; Gl, cyclic β-glucan; M, manitol; G, Benzatropine glutamate. To elucidate if the synthesis of trehalose by R. tropici CIAT 899 involves the transformation of mannitol to one or both of the trehalose glucose units, or a full degradation of the carbon source followed by a synthesis de novo, this strain was grown

in 0.1 M NaCl MAS medium with 1-13C-mannitol as carbon source, and the cellular extracts were analyzed by 1H spectroscopy. As shown in Figure 8E, only resonances corresponding to the C1 and C6 carbons of the glucose units of trehalose and the unknown sugar, as well as those of the C1/C6 of mannitol, could be observed. In contrast, the three signals corresponding to glutamate were 13C-labelled. These findings indicate that the two glucose moieties of trehalose, as well as the unknown sugar units, were derived directly from mannitol, whereas glutamate synthesis occurred de novo, after complete mannitol degradation. The unknown sugar accumulated by R. tropici CIAT 899 at low salinity is a cyclic (1→2)-β-glucan Initially, the six remaining resonances in the 13C-NMR spectrum of cellular extracts from R. tropici CIAT 899 grown at low salinity could not be assigned to any known compatible solute (see Figure 3A). To determine the structure of this unknown sugar, we took LY2874455 advantage of the fact that R. tropici grown in the presence of mannose does not synthesize trehalose, which could interfere in the identification of this compound. Thus, cells of R.

V. cholerae has been proposed to be a useful prokaryotic model of alterations in L-tyrosine catabolism and has been used to study the molecular basis of diseases related to L-tyrosine catabolism [15]. However, to date, all the research on melanogenesis in V. cholerae has been based on chemically

induced mutants or mutants generated using transposons. During our cholera surveillance, some O139 and O1 strains that produced soluble brown pigments were isolated from environmental water samples and patients. Unusually, these strains can produce pigment under the normally used experimental growth conditions [Luria-Bertani (LB) nutrient agar or broth without temperature limitation].

Using transposon Sotrastaurin cost mutagenesis, we PF-01367338 nmr determined that the p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPD; VC1344 in the N16961 genome) in the tyrosine catabolic pathway was responsible for the pigment production in these strains [24]. Further, the three genes in a cluster ARS-1620 chemical structure downstream of VC1344 were found to correspond to the other three enzymes involved in tyrosine catabolism [23, 24]. In this study, we analyzed the sequence variance of the four genes involved PLEK2 in tyrosine catabolism and the functions of the mutant genes to determine the possible mechanism of pigment production in these

isolates. We also found a close relationship of clonality among these strains, even though they were isolated in different years and from different areas. The potentiality of clone selection and pathogenicity of such strains should be considered. 2. Methods 2.1 Strains In this study, 22 V. cholerae O1 and O139 toxigenic and nontoxigenic strains were used (Table 1). Among these isolates, 95-4, 98-200, JX2006135, JX2006136, JX2006175, GD200101012, and 3182 are pigment-producing strains. These strains were isolated in different years and from different provinces of China. The El Tor strain 3182 was isolated from patients and the other six O139 strains were isolated from environmental water. In addition to the reference strains, including N16961, 569B, and MO45, the controls included other non-pigment-producing strains that were isolated in the same province or at the same time as the pigmented strains. Strains were cultured in LB liquid medium shaking at 37°C or on LB agar plates (1% tryptone, 0.5% yeast extract, 0.5% NaCl, and 1.5% agar).

J Clin Microbiol 2010,48(8):2762–2769.PubMedCrossRef 13. Simoes AS, Sa-Leao R, Eleveld MJ, Tavares DA, Carrico JA, Bootsma HJ, Hermans PW: Highly penicillin-resistant multidrug-resistant

pneumococcus-like strains colonizing children in Oeiras, Portugal: genomic characteristics and implications for surveillance. J Clin Microbiol 2010,48(1):238–246.PubMedCrossRef 14. Do T, Jolley KA, Maiden MCJ, Gilbert SC, Clark D, Wade WG DB: Population structure of Streptococcus oralis. Microbiology 2009, 155:2593–2602.PubMedCrossRef 15. Suzuki N, Seki M, Nakano Y, Kiyoura selleck compound Y, Maeno M, Yamashita Y: Discrimination of Streptococcus pneumoniae from viridans group streptococci by genomic subtractive hybridization. J Clin Microbiol 2005,43(9):4528–4534.PubMedCrossRef 16. Whatmore AM, Efstratiou A, Pickerill AP, Broughton K, Woodard G, Sturgeon D, George R, Dowson CG: Genetic relationships between clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus oralis, and Streptococcus mitis: characterization of “”Atypical”" pneumococci and organisms allied to S. mitis harboring S. pneumoniae virulence factor-encoding genes. Infect Immun 2000,68(3):1374–1382.PubMedCrossRef 17. Mager DL, Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS: Distribution of selected bacterial species on intraoral surfaces. J Clin selleck chemicals llc Periodontol 2003,30(7):644–654.PubMedCrossRef

18. Whiley RA, Beighton D: Current classification of the oral streptococci. Oral Microbiol Immunol 1998,13(4):195–216.PubMedCrossRef 19. Seki M, Yamashita Y, Torigoe H, Tsuda H, Sato S, Maeno M: Loop-mediated isothermal amplification method targeting the lytA gene for detection Selleck Vistusertib of Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol 2005,43(4):1581–1586.PubMedCrossRef 20. Verhelst

R, Kaijalainen T, De Baere T, Verschraegen G, Claeys G, Van Simaey L, De Ganck C, Vaneechoutte M: Comparison of five genotypic techniques for identification of optochin-resistant pneumococcus-like isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2003,41(8):3521–3525.PubMedCrossRef 21. van Hijum SA, Baerends RJ, Zomer AL, Karsens HA, Martin-Requena V, Trelles O, Kok J, Kuipers Leukocyte receptor tyrosine kinase OP: Supervised Lowess normalization of comparative genome hybridization data–application to lactococcal strain comparisons. BMC Bioinforma 2008, 9:93.CrossRef 22. Aguado-Urda M, Lopez-Campos GH, Fernandez-Garayzabal JF, Martin-Sanchez F, Gibello A, Dominguez L, Blanco MM: Analysis of the genome content of Lactococcus garvieae by genomic interspecies microarray hybridization. BMC Microbiol 2010, 10:79.PubMedCrossRef 23. Fukiya S, Mizoguchi H, Tobe T, Mori H: Extensive genomic diversity in pathogenic Escherichia coli and Shigella strains revealed by comparative genomic hybridization microarray. J Bacteriol 2004,186(12):3911–3921.PubMedCrossRef 24. Park HK, Lee HJ, Jeong EG, Shin HS, Kim W: The rgg gene is a specific marker for Streptococcus oralis. J Dent Res 2010,89(11):1299–1303.

syringae 1448a resulted in complete abolition of pyoverdine synthesis. Analysis of these mutants PKC412 molecular weight under iron-limiting conditions revealed the presence of a secondary siderophore, which was shown by genetic and biochemical analysis to be achromobactin. Although P. syringae 1448a also appears to have the genetic potential to produce a third siderophore, yersiniabactin, our pvd-/acr- double mutant did not appear to be able to make this or any other siderophores, at least in response to iron limitation. Our study does not rule out that yersiniabactin synthesis might be induced in P. syringae 1448a in planta, but this would contrast with

yersiniabactin synthesis in P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000, which occurs both in planta [46] and under iron-limiting conditions in vitro [43]. We observed that synthesis of achromobactin by our pvd- mutant was temperature sensitive. Temperature regulation of siderophore production has been observed for other bacterial

species [[47–49]] and has been known to govern expression of other P. syringae genes, especially those implicated in causing disease [50]. Achromobactin is known to contribute to virulence in D. dadantii [25], and these observations prompted us to test whether it is a virulence factor in P. syringae 1448a also. The contribution of both achromobactin and pyoverdine to virulence of P. syringae 1448a during infection of Phaseolus vulgaris was assessed by inoculation of mutant strains and wild type controls into the bean pods. All single and double mutants were ARRY-162 in vitro still able to cause lesions in this standardized pathogenicity test, indicating that neither siderophore is required for P. syringae

1448a to cause halo blight in Phaseolus vulgaris. These results were initially surprising to us, given that iron is essential for core metabolic processes, is believed to be severely restricted in the plant extracellular environment [51], and that siderophores are generally regarded as important for microbial pathogenesis of both plant and animal hosts [6, 51]. However, although the Evofosfamide cost assumption is frequently made that pyoverdines are able to Methocarbamol act as virulence factors in both animal and plant hosts, there is little experimental evidence for the latter. Indeed, pyoverdine from P. syringae pv. syringae has likewise been shown not to have a determinative role in pathogenesis of sweet cherry fruit [52] and more recently, pyoverdine in P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 has also been shown to be dispensable for pathogenesis [46]. It may be that phytotoxins render siderophores obsolete during the disease process by releasing iron from damaged plant cells into the extra-cellular environment. It should also be noted that the standard bean inoculation assay for P. syringae 1448a virulence monitors only the ability to cause lesions, which is dependent primarily on toxin release and may not accurately report on the full progression of disease.

J Biomol NMR 1995,6(3):277–293.PubMedCrossRef 61. Johnson BA, Blevins RA: Nmr View – a Computer-Program for the Visualization and Analysis of Nmr Data. J Biomol NMR 1994,4(5):603–614.CrossRef 62. Slupsky CM, Boyko RF, Booth VK, Sykes BD: Smartnotebook:

a semi-automated approach to protein sequential NMR resonance assignments. J Biomol NMR 2003,27(4):313–321.PubMedCrossRef check details 63. Marsh JA, Singh VK, Jia Z, Forman-Kay JD: Sensitivity of secondary structure propensities to sequence differences between alpha- and gamma-synuclein: implications for fibrillation. Protein Sci 2006,15(12):2795–2804.PubMedCrossRef 64. Marcotte I, Separovic F, Auger M, Gagne SM: A multidimensional 1 H NMR investigation of the conformation of methionine-enkephalin in fast-tumbling bicelles. Biophys J 2004,86(3):1587–1600.PubMedCrossRef 65. Nan YH, Bang JK, Shin SY: Design of novel indolicidin-derived antimicrobial peptides with enhanced cell specificity and potent anti-inflammatory activity. Selleck Ruxolitinib Peptides 2009,30(5):832–838.PubMedCrossRef 66. Peeters E, Nelis HJ, Coenye T: Comparison of multiple methods for quantification of microbial biofilms grown in microtiter plates. J Microbiol Methods 2008,72(2):157–165.PubMedCrossRef 67. Pedersen SS, Espersen F, Hoiby N, Shand GH: Purification, characterization, and immunological cross-reactivity of alginates produced by mucoid Pseudomonas

aeruginosa from patients with cystic fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol 1989,27(4):691–699.PubMed 68. Ambrosi C, Tiburzi F, Imperi F, Putignani L, Visca P: Involvement of AlgQ in transcriptional regulation of pyoverdine genes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. J Bacteriol 2005,187(15):5097–5107.PubMedCrossRef Authors’ contributions

AB carried out the purification of peptides, prepared the samples for CD, NMR and SEM analyses, analyzed the spectra for backbone assignments and secondary structures, performed the experiments on the release of liposome-entrapped calcein and the expression of virulence factors and participated in drafting the manuscript. NV carried out the SB-3CT membrane depolarization studies, the confocal microscopy examinations with fluorescein-labeled pre-elafin/trappin-2 and drafted the manuscript. SM analyzed NMR data and drafted the manuscript. SMG designed and analyzed NMR experiments. YB conceived the study, participated in its design and wrote the manuscript. All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript. The authors declare no competing interest.”
“Background Periodontitis is a chronic destructive infectious disease of the tooth-supporting learn more tissues. It is one of the most prevalent infectious diseases in the world. With percentages of moderate disease ranging from just below 20% in an age group of 30 to 40 year-olds in Swedish and Norwegian studies to even up to 38% of severe cases in the United States in an on average 75 year-old male population [1–3].

For histochemical tests, sections of mycelial mats were checked by Fehling’ Test [70] to detect reduced sugars, by Sudan III solution [71] to

detect lipids and by Floroglucinol Acid solution [66] to detect phenolic compounds. For scanning electron microscopy (SEM), samples were fixed in FAA (5% formaldehyde; 5% acetic acid; 63% ethanol), and dehydrated in increasing acetone solutions (30 to 100%), for 15 min at each concentration. Sections were dried to the critical point, mounted in stubs, and covered with gold before SEM analysis (Model LEO 54× (Zeiss), at the 10058-F4 cell line State University of Feira de Santana (Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil). Fungal strains, sampling, growth conditions for molecular analysis and RNA isolation M. perniciosa strain FA553 (Cp02), sequenced by the WBD Genome Project [27] was used for macroarray and RT-qPCR analyses. Growth conditions were selleck screening library described as above except for some details: the chamber was a glass box (40 × 30 × 30 cm) with hooks on the lid underside. Units of mycelial mats were suspended on these hooks PF-6463922 molecular weight and washed aseptically. Temperature and light were as mentioned above. Samples were collected in the different pigmentation phases: white, yellow, reddish-pink, reddish-pink before stress and reddish-pink mycelium after stress (10 d without irrigation); mycelium containing primordia, and basidiomata (Figure 1G). Individual samples of CP02

were processed using the RNAeasy Plant Midi Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, USA). The RNA samples were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by denaturing formaldehyde/agarose gel electrophoresis

and optical density was determined [72]. Aliquots of each sample were stored at -80°C until analysis. Figure 1G summarizes sampling for RNA extractions. cDNA library construction and analysis of differential gene expression by macroarray The macroarray membrane was spotted with 192 cDNA clones in duplicate, which were selected from a cDNA library based on their putative role in basidiomata development in other fungi and their involvement in nutrient depletion and cell signaling. For the cDNA library construction, the M. perniciosa strain CEPEC 1108 (CP03) was cultured as previously described and mycelium samples in white, yellow, reddish-pink, dark reddish pink and primordium stages, as well as from basidiomata were used to construct a full-length, Tacrolimus (FK506) non-normalized cDNA library. Total RNA was extracted from samples using RNAs in RNA Plant Midi Kit as described by the manufacturer (Qiagen) and after quantification, 1 μg was used to construct the library using DB SMART Creator cDNA library as described by the manufacturer (Clontech). cDNA strands longer than 400 bp were cloned directionally into the pDNR-LIB plasmid. ElectroMAX™ DH10BTM cells (Invitrogen) were transformed and colonies selected and grown in 96-well microtiter plates in LB, 40% glycerol medium containing 30 μg/L chloramphenicol and stored at -80°C.

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2009, 8:53–62.PubMedCrossRef 32. Beltan E, Horgen L, Rastogi N: Secretion of cytokines by human macrophages upon infection by pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacteria. Alvocidib solubility dmso Microb Pathog 2000, 28:313–318.PubMedCrossRef 33. Redford PS, Murray PJ, O’Garra A: The role of IL-10 in immune regulation during M. tuberculosis infection. Mucosal Immunol 2011, 4:261–270.PubMedCrossRef 34. Lee JS, Yang CS, Shin DM, Yuk JM, Son JW, Jo EK: Nitric oxide synthesis is modulated by 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and interferon-gamma in human macrophages after mycobacterial infection. Immune Netw 2009, 9:192–202.PubMedCrossRef 35. Maiti D, Bhattacharyya A, Basu J: Lipoarabinomannan from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

promotes macrophage survival by phosphorylating bad through a phosphatidylinositol MG-132 cost 3-kinase/Akt pathway. J Biol Chem 2001, 276:329–333.PubMedCrossRef 36. Manning BD, Cantley LC: AKT/PKB signaling: navigating downstream. Cell 2007, 29:1261–1274.CrossRef 37. Gross A: BCL-2 proteins: regulators of the mitochondrial apoptotic program. IUBMB Life 2001, 52:231–236.PubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors report no conflicts of interests. Authors’ contributions MB, IS, MiK, AB, and JP carried out the experiments and participated in the interpretation, acquisition, and statistical analysis of data. MaK and JD made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study as well as to interpretation of study results. MaK, JD, and ZS were involved in drafting and critical revisions of the manuscript, and gave final approval of the version to be published. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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20. Ellis J, Dodds P, Pryor T: Structure, function and evolution of plant disease resistance genes. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2000,3(4):278–284.PubMedCrossRef 21. Richter TE, Ronald PC: The evolution of disease resistance genes. Plant Mol Biol 2000,42(1):195–204.PubMedCrossRef 22. Ronald PC: Resistance gene evolution. Curr Opin Plant Biol 1998,1(4):294–298.PubMedCrossRef 23. Michelmore RW, Meyers Chloroambucil BC: Clusters of resistance genes in plants evolve by divergent selection and a birth-and-death process. Genome Res 1998,8(11):1113–1130.PubMed 24. Couch BC, Spangler R, Ramos C, May G: Pervasive purifying selection characterizes the evolution of I2 homologs. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 2006,19(3):288–303.PubMedCrossRef 25. Matsushima N, Kamiya M, Suzuki N, Tanaka T: Super-motifs of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) proteins. Genome check details informatics 2000, 11:343–345. 26. Matsushima N, Ohyanagi T, Tanaka T, Kretsinger RH: Super-motifs and

evolution of tandem leucine-rich repeats within the small proteoglycans–biglycan, decorin, lumican, fibromodulin, PRELP, keratocan, osteoadherin, epiphycan, and osteoglycin. Proteins 2000,38(2):210–225.PubMedCrossRef 27. Matsushima N, Tanaka T, Enkhbayar P, Mikami T, Taga M, Yamada K, Kuroki Y: Comparative sequence analysis of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) within vertebrate toll-like receptors. BMC Genomics 2007, 8:124.PubMedCrossRef 28. Eugster M, Roten CA, Greub G: Analyses of six homologous proteins of Protochlamydia amoebophila UWE25 encoded by large GC-rich genes (lgr): a model of evolution and concatenation of leucine-rich repeats. BMC Evol Biol 2007, 7:231.PubMedCrossRef 29. Hirt RP, Harriman N, Kajava AV, Embley TM: A novel potential surface protein in Trichomonas vaginalis contains a leucine-rich repeat shared by micro-organisms from all three domains of life.