A strong polarization dependence on the xenon density [Xe] is expected from Eq. (3) and from the large rubidium depolarization rate constant κsdXe=5.2×10-15cm3s-1 for xenon [72] and [76]. The strong polarization dependence on [Xe] is well known for 129Xe SEOP, however the approximately 100-fold reduction of the 131Xe polarization between mixtures I to III exceeds significantly the effect previously observed with SEOP of the spin find more I   = 1/2 isotope [77]. If the xenon self relaxation Γ   is omitted in Eq. (3) and if one neglects the effects of nitrogen and helium (note that κsdHe:κsdN2:κsdXe≈3.8×10-4:1.7×10-3:1) [72] and [76], the steady-state polarization

reached after long SEOP times is described by P131XeSEOP(max)=γop/(γop+κsdXe[Xe]). For κsdXe[Xe]≫γop, the dependence upon the xenon density is P131XeSEOP(max)∝[Xe]-1. This proportionality describes approximately

the observations of previous work with 129Xe SEOP [77], where the same laser and similar SEOP cells had been used under continuous flow conditions. It was found that κsdXe[Xe] exceeds γop by about one order of magnitude. For the mixtures I, II and III one would therefore expect a ratio for A of 1:0.25:0.054, i.e. an approximately 20-fold reduction in polarization between I and III. The 100-fold reduction found with 131Xe suggest that, in contrast to 129Xe, the relaxation rate constant Γ in Eq. (3) cannot be neglected for 131Xe in mixture E7080 ic50 III. The term γse/(γse + Γ) contributes roughly with a factor of five to the polarization difference between mixtures III and I, while it contributes relatively little to the polarization

difference between mixtures II and I. The value for Γ can be estimated from next Eq. (1) and increases approximately 18 times from 0.18 × 10−2 s−1, to 0.72 × 10−2 s−1, and to 3.3 × 10−2 s−1 for mixture I, II and III respectively, at the xenon density found at 150 kPa total pressure and 453 K SEOP temperature. However, the contributions from the other gases to the 131Xe relaxation are neglected. Previous work with hp 83Kr spectroscopy [26] has shown that other inert gases contribute quite substantially to the observed relaxation, but the estimate made above is probably reasonable for mixture III due to its high xenon concentration. There are however further problems: Eq. (1) is valid for T = 298 K only [23] and in addition the relaxation will be affected by the wall relaxation and by van der Waals complexes in the gas phase [25]. Nevertheless, the values above, in particular for mixture III, will be used for some further considerations. The spin exchange rate γse is a function of xenon density dependent term and a xenon density independent term [78]: equation(5) γse=[Rb]γRbXe[Xe]+〈σv〉were the rate constant γRbXe describes xenon spin exchange during Rb–Xe van der Waals complexes and 〈σv〉 is the spin exchange cross section for binary collisions.

PB1 medium [23]

was used to collect two-cell stage embryos and embryo transfer. All reagents for preparing PB1 were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). For embryo collection, 150 IU/kg of equine chorionic gonadotropin (Serotropin; ASUKA Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and 75 IU/kg of human chorionic gonadotropin (Gonatropin; this website ASUKA Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.) were administered intraperitoneally to female rats at an interval of 48 h (administration time: 12:00–14:00) to induce superovulation [18]. Immediately after administration of human chorionic gonadotropin, female rats were bred with male rats of the same strain, and euthanized 1.5 d post coitum (dpc). The ovarian ducts were perfused and the embryos were collected. To examine the in vivo development, embryo transfer was performed into the ovarian ducts of pseudopregnant female rats on 0.5 dpc. On day 18.5–19.5 after embryo transfer, the pseudopregnant female rats were deeply anesthetized

and laparotomy was performed to observe implantation and fetal ABT-199 supplier development. Although the embryos exposed to cryoprotectant solution (CPS) shrunk, when the cell-permeable cryoprotectant added to the CPS penetrated the cell, with time the volume of the cell recovered. Therefore, the permeation speed of cryoprotectant into the cells can be determined by measuring the cell volume at specific time intervals after exposure of the cells to CPS. We adjusted the CPS (v/v) and measured the cell volume using the method of Pedro et al. Pedro et al. [16]. In the experiment, we used CPS (CPS20) to which we added 20% v/v cell-permeable cryoprotectant in PB1. All cell-permeable cryoprotectants were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. Briefly, the 2-cell stage embryos were exposed to CPS20 at 25 ± 0.5 °C and the cell diameter was measured 0 (control), 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 s later. The volume was calculated with the formula V = S3/2

(S: relative cross-sectional area; V: relative volume, S = πab; a: radius of the long axis; b: radius of the minor axis) and the ratio of the volume at each time point was calculated with the control volume. To investigate the cytotoxicity, CPS (CPS10) containing the cryoprotectant with the fastest cell permeability at a concentration Reverse transcriptase of 10% v/v in PB1 was used. After the embryos were exposed to CPS10 for 300 or 600 s at 25 ± 0.5 °C, they were shifted to a solution containing 0.3 mol sucrose in PB1 (SPB1), and then left at rest for 120 s. The embryos were then washed with PB1 three times and embryo survival was confirmed. The surviving embryos after exposure to CPS were examined for in vivo development. First, we prepared five types of CPS containing 0.3 mol sucrose, 10% v/v propylene glycol, and various amounts of ethylene glycol (10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 30% v/v) in PB1 (Table 3).

Relative and measured concentrations of alkyl-naphthalenes decreased in all doses except MWO-low and mid during the first 4 days of the 2 experiments. Thus, the declines in measured TPAH concentrations and changes in the relative PAH composition in the effluents at all doses of LWO and MWO were caused mainly by the more rapid loss of lower-molecular-weight naphthalene and alkyl-naphthalenes than the higher molecular weight (HMW) 3- and 4-ring parent and alkyl-PAH. Carls et al., BMS-354825 in vitro 1997 and Carls et al., 1999 attributed the greater

toxicity of the MWO effluent compared to the LWO effluent to the MWO’s higher relative concentrations of HMW 3- and 4-ring parent and alkyl-PAH, in particular alkyl-phenanthrenes. However, it is the absolute concentration of a toxicant that determines toxic effects, not its relative concentration; again, the relative potency of the different HMW PAH should have been investigated. This is best illustrated by comparison of LWO and MWO doses with similar initial TPAH concentrations: LWO-low and MWO-high (bold face values in Table 1; see also Table 2).

The LWO-low dose containing 9.1 μg/L TPAH did not produce significant mortality in herring embryos (6.0%) and larvae (6.2%), whereas the MWO-high dose containing 7.6 μg/L TPAH produced significant embryo and larval mortality

(32.4% and 8.2% respectively). However, the mTOR inhibitor non-toxic LWO-low effluent contained higher concentrations of TPAH, total HMW PAH, total alkyl-naphthalenes, total alkyl-phenanthrenes and slightly lower concentrations of total alkyl-chrysenes than the toxic MWO-high effluent at both days 0 and 4 (Table 1). Total alkyl-chrysenes concentrations were comparable to analytical method detection limits in all effluents, including controls. Thus, the toxicity of the MWO-high effluent cannot be attributed to TPAH, total HMW PAH, alkyl-naphthalenes, alkyl-phenanthrenes, or alkyl-chrysenes. In addition, the initial aqueous concentrations NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase of TPAH, total HMW PAH, total HMW alkyl-PAH, total alkyl-naphthalenes, alkyl-phenanthrenes and alkyl-dibenzothiophenes in the MWO-low, mid, and -high doses that produced lethal and sublethal effects were lower than their concentrations in the LWO-low dose that was not lethal, but produced ∼9% yolk sac edema in larvae (Table 2), comparable to the incidence of yolk sac edema in herring larvae from Seymour Canal (the source of eggs for the MWO experiment) (Johnson et al., 1997). Concentrations of alkyl-fluorenes, alkyl-fluoranthenes/pyrenes and alkyl-chrysenes were low in all doses although slightly higher in the MWO-high dose than in the LWO-low dose.

This finding may demonstrate that based on the juxtaposition of astrocytes with brain blood vessels, astrocytes may be better positioned to respond to the anti-inflammatory effects of SFN. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence to suggest that dietary broccoli influences GFAP. In light of this, it would be interesting to further examine the effects of feeding a broccoli-supplemented diet to mice on changes in surface

expression of glial reactivity markers LBH589 chemical structure in primary culture. This has been tested to some extent with SFN, but to our knowledge, not with dietary broccoli. We also observed evidence of microglia or perivascular macrophage reactivity. Increased expression of the genetic marker for microglia/macrophage activation, CD11b, was expectedly increased in animals treated with LPS. Expression of CD11b was unaffected by diet, suggesting that neither microglia nor brain resident macrophages were responsive to the beneficial effects of a broccoli diet in our model. This was surprising, given that microglia and macrophages are robust producers of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species during inflammatory stimulation. However, these cells are also quite sensitive to LPS-induced inflammation, and the dose of LPS used GKT137831 may have overwhelmed the beneficial

effects of dietary broccoli. These data indicate that gliosis induced by a peripheral stimulus is aggravated by age and that dietary broccoli may reduce aging-associated glial reactivity. The fractalkine ligand (CX3CL1) and fractalkine receptor (CX3CR1) is an important regulatory system for tempering the microglial response after activation from endogenous and exogenous immune stimuli. Indeed, mice with a genetic deletion of CX3CR1 have an exaggerated

microglial Osimertinib cell line inflammatory response and increased duration of sickness behavior compared with wild-type mice. CX3CR1 knockout mice have a similar response to LPS treatment as to that observed in aged animals [28], [43] and [44]. In addition, it has been demonstrated that LPS decreases CX3CR1 at both the mRNA and protein level in microglia [28]. We observed an LPS-induced decrease in CX3CR1 expression in our model that was prevented in aged animals given LPS and fed broccoli diet. These data suggest that aged animals that consume dietary broccoli may have suppressed microglial activation compared with animals that do not consume broccoli in the diet and therefore may have improved long-term brain health, for example, improved neuron survival and increase in neurogenesis, when confronted with infectious disease due to potential suppression of microglial hyperactivity that has been described in aged mice [28] and [45].

brasiliensis ( Kim et al., 2009 and Oliveira et al., 2010). The evaluation of extracts by paper chromatography has shown that selleck kinase inhibitor these ninhydrin positive compounds are predominantly, but not exclusively, amino acids and can include polyamines and biogenic amines as already described for other mushrooms ( Nishibori, Fujihara, & Akatuki, 2007). The values obtained for A. brasiliensis extracts indicate that both fruiting body and mycelium are rich in phenolic compounds and its contents are similar or higher than those found in other edible and medicinal mushrooms including Grifola frondosa, Pleurotus ostreatus, Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinula edodes ( Asatiani et al., 2007, Barros et al.,

2008, Jayakumar et al., 2009, Kalyoncu et al.,

2010, Mau et al., 2002, Mau et al., 2002, Tsai et al., 2007 and Wong and Chye, 2009). The evaluation of the amount of total phenolic compounds as well as the identification of the main phenolics in mushrooms, have both great importance in their nutritional and functional characterization. Phenolics are secondary metabolites commonly found in plants, mushrooms and fungi and have been reported to exert multiple biological Target Selective Inhibitor Library mouse effects including antioxidant activity ( Dimitrios, 2006 and Kim et al., 2008). It is well-known that phenolics are antioxidants with redox properties, which allow them to act as reducing agents, hydrogen donors, free radical scavengers, and singlet oxygen quenchers ( Dimitrios, 2006). Unfortunately, only three from ten phenolic detected in HPLC experiments were identified in this work. The flavonoid content,

as indicated by the chemical identification procedure pheromone utilized in the present work, is very low. The HPLC analysis failed to identify any of these compounds. Although flavonoids such as quercetin and myricetin have been putatively identified in mushrooms including A. brasiliensis ( Kim et al., 2008), these findings are still demanding confirmation by more sensitive and specific methods. Because different antioxidant compounds may act in vivo through different mechanisms, no single method can fully evaluate the total antioxidant capacity of materials. For this reason, in this work, four complementary test systems were used for evaluating the antioxidant activities of the extracts. Two tests, DPPH scavenging activity and LPO inhibition, indicated stronger antioxidant activity for the fruiting bodies extracts when compared to the mycelial extracts. The other tests, ABTS scavenging activity and ferrous ion chelating activity, indicated the opposite. The cause for these apparently discrepant results could be partly related to the fact that different extracts may contain different types of polyphenolics with quite different reactivities. It should also be pointed out that the antioxidant activity of fungal extracts is not solely given by phenolics.

The produced prokaryotic biomass is grazed by nanoplankton (nanoflagellates and ciliates), that is successively consumed by micro-zooplankton and organisms of higher trophic level that in turn produce DOM. This microbial loop allows AG-14699 the transfer of energy to the higher levels of the trophic

web by recycling of organic matter. All sequences retrieved by Michotey et al. (2012) were affiliated within bacterial (Cyanobacteria, and heterotrophic Proteobacteria and Flavobacteria) or archaeal superkingdoms. Communities and operational taxonomic units were analysed according to dry/rainy seasons and free-living/particle-attached state. Variations of these communities were also assessed in relation to an oceanic-lagoon gradient, and inside the lagoons at different locations and depth. Bacterial density was higher in the lagoon compared to ocean and a seasonal trend was observed. No spatial pattern of bacterial abundance and diversity within the lagoon

was detected, nor the influence of the planktonic/attached states was noticed. Archaeal abundance showed seasonal tendency and particle-prevalence, but no differences between lagoon and oceanic location was observed. The spatio-temporal pervasiveness found by Michotey et al. (2012) for the heterotrophic groups (Marinovum, Selumetinib cell line Flavobacteria and Erytrobacter) confirms that in Ahe atoll, the microbial loop can be predominant ( Pagano et al., 2012) and the community is heterotrophic. Finally, Pagano et al. (2012) completed within Ahe lagoon the assessment of planktonic communities and food webs by investigating during three periods the space–time variations of metazooplankton communities and

their abundance according to environmental (salinity, temperature, wind), and trophic factors (phytoplankton, bacteria, heterotrophic nanoflagellates, and ciliates) distribution. Zooplankton plays a major role in the functioning, productivity and food webs of aquatic ecosystems. Zooplanktonic organisms have an herbivorous-detritivorous Interleukin-2 receptor diet and can exert a strong grazing pressure on phytoplanktonic biomass. Zooplankton, including larvae of P. margaritifera, are themselves a food source for organisms of the upper trophic levels such as planktivorous fish and carnivorous invertebrates. In Ahe, the meroplankton, mainly bivalve and gastropod larvae, was dominant. Holoplankton was dominated by copepods. Results highlighted the wind influence on the horizontal distribution of the zooplankton communities that are consistent with the hydrodynamic structures described by Dumas et al. (2012). The metazooplankton was bottom-up controlled by trophic resources. Then, the low nanophytoplankton biomass in contrast to the high abundance of picophytoplankton, nanoflagellates and nano-particle grazers confirmed the importance of the microbial loop in the planktonic food web of Ahe lagoon.

, 2008). Of those visiting their GP with a new episode of CANS, 33% are diagnosed with SIS (Feleus

et al., 2008). Work-related factors associated with the occurrence of SIS are highly repetitive work, forceful exertion in work, awkward postures, and high psychosocial job demand (van Rijn et al., 2010). The consequences of SIS are functional loss and disability. Pathology of SIS is considered to be the principal cause of pain Apoptosis Compound Library price and symptoms arising from the shoulder. In general, the diagnosis SIS relates more to a clinical hypothesis as to the underlying cause of the symptoms than to definitive evidence of the histological basis for the diagnosis or the correlation between structural failure and symptoms (Lewis, 2009). Some patients with SIS have calcific tendinosis, a reactive calcification that affects one of the rotator cuff tendons, which leads to the characteristic impingement symptoms (Sabeti-Aschraf et al., 2005). In the last 20 years extracorporeal shock-wave therapy (ESWT) has been used to treat soft tissue pain in the vicinity of bone structures (Chow and Cheing, 2007). The non-invasive ESWT is achieved through acoustic waves associated with a sudden rise in pressure generated by electrohydraulic, piezoelectric and electromagnetic devices resulting in release of low-, medium- find more or high-energy extracorporeal shockwaves (Uhthoff and Sarkar, 1989 and Ogden et al., 2001). ESWT

is currently applied to treat chronic enthesiopathies many such as epicondylitis, plantar heel spur, and calcifying

rotator cuff tendinosis (RC-tendinosis) (Gerdesmeyer et al., 2002). The exact mechanism by which ESWT relieves tendon-associated pain is still unclear. The theoretical benefits are the stimulation of tissue healing (Schmitz and DePace, 2009). and the breakdown of calcification (Loew et al., 1995). Of those with a calcific RC-tendinosis, the supraspinatus tendon is most affected (80%) followed by the infraspinatus tendon (15%) and subscapularis tendon (5%) (Bosworth, 1941, Molé et al., 1997 and Bianchi and Martinoli, 2007). For these patients, ESWT is supposed to be successful. Moreover, ESWT is suggested to play a role in the management of non-calcific RC-tendinosis, especially in those who have had repeated non-surgical treatment failures (Chung and Wiley, 2002). The purpose of this study is to present an evidence-based overview of the effectiveness of ESWT for the management of calcific and non-calcific RC-tendinosis. This information can be helpful to further optimize the quality of care for patients with these disorders. Further, it can support developing and updating evidence-based protocols and clinical guidelines and it will identify gaps in our scientific knowledge and therefore can give direction to future research on calcific and non-calcific RC-tendinosis. This study was part of a literature study concentrating on evidence for effectiveness of non-surgical and surgical interventions for SIS.

There was no inclusion criterion based on BMD. Key exclusion criteria included any prior or current treatment with osteoporosis http://www.selleckchem.com/products/ABT-888.html medication

other than daily or weekly oral alendronate therapy, hormone replacement therapy, and calcium and vitamin D (use of raloxifene or calcitonin prior to initiation of alendronate therapy was allowed); use of the following medications within 3 months of screening: tibolone, anabolic steroids or testosterone, and glucocorticosteroids (≥ 5 mg prednisone equivalent per day for > 10 days or a total cumulative dose of ≥ 50 mg); contraindicated or poorly tolerant of alendronate; significantly impaired renal function; previous participation in clinical trials with denosumab within the preceding 12 months regardless of treatment; reported malignancy within the last 5 years, except cervical carcinoma in situ or basal cell carcinoma; and any metabolic bone disease that had the potential to interfere with the interpretation of the findings. Vitamin D deficiency, defined as serum 25 (OH) vitamin

D levels < 20 ng/mL, was Galunisertib an exclusion criterion: repletion as confirmed by a serum vitamin D level ≥ 20 ng/mL was allowed and subjects were able to be re-screened only once. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the International Conference on Harmonization Good Clinical Practice Guidelines, and the study protocol was approved by an institutional review board for each study site. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans were performed at the proximal femur

and lumbar spine (L1 to L4) at baseline and month 12 or end-of-study visit using GE Lunar or Hologic series scanners. The same DXA machine was used for all study procedures for a particular subject. The left side was used for all study procedures of the proximal femur, unless prohibited (e.g., hip implant). If the right side was used at screening, then the same side was used consistently throughout the study. DXA scans were Anidulafungin (LY303366) performed in duplicate, i.e., an initial scan and a repeat scan (after repositioning the patient on the table between measurements) at each visit, and analyzed by a central imaging vendor (Synarc, Portland, OR, USA). Measurement of the biochemical marker of bone turnover, serum C-telopeptide of type I collagen (sCTX-1), was performed by Covance Laboratory (Indianapolis, IN, USA). sCTX-1 measurements were taken after an overnight fast and prior to the dose of investigational product in a subset of subjects who agreed to participate in the bone marker substudy at day 1 (baseline) and at months 1 and 6 (152 subjects: 68 risedronate; 84 denosumab). All samples were shipped to the central laboratory for analysis and measured in multiple assays.

That was not reflected in our data; during winter Selleckchem Tacrolimus and spring the daily mortality rate were the lowest, while increasing from spring to summer (about 0.80). However this was most likely caused by relatively low abundance of this species, meaning that effect of predation was negligible, and other processes like advective transport were more visible. Although the data obtained from this study are too scarce to draw any long-term conclusions, they seem to fit to the trends observed in other parts of the

Baltic Sea, mostly increase in standing stocks of Acartia spp. and T. longicornis and decrease of Pseudocalanus sp. decline ( Dippner et al., 2000, Möllmann and Köster, 2002, Möllmann et al., 2000, Möllmann et al., 2005 and Renz et al., 2007). The same effect was also observed in production rates of those species, especially Pseudocalanus sp. which had production rates observed in bay that were several times lower than that observed in Central Baltic ( Möllmann and Köster, 2002 and Renz et al., 2007). Results obtained in this investigation show higher mortality of this website major copepod taxa than it was observed in 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. As the growing trend in the Gulf of Gdańsk seems to be reflecting the situation in other parts of Baltic Sea this could be caused by increased predation of clupeid fish on zooplankton, and it is similar to the situation observed at the beginning of 1990s. This research

was carried out with the support of a grant from the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research (No. NN306 353239). “
“Intensification of human activities regarding new technologies, especially inventing new substances, progress in medicine and pharmaceutical industry and the extension

of needs in progressing civilization in general, results in increasing anthropogenic pressure on the natural environment. The release of large amounts of chemical substances to the environment poses currently one of the serious Aldehyde dehydrogenase problems as neither their effects nor their distribution among the environment components is well recognized. Therefore, the assessment of the environmental status became the key issue at present in order to support appropriate decisions on measures aiming at reduction of the pressures and restoration of the undisturbed functioning of the ecosystem. The HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan (HELCOM, 2007) is an example of such a voluntary initiative of countries wishing to have back a healthy sea, and the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (Anon., 2000) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) (Anon., 2008) are the examples of strong legal actions that bind countries to undertake measures aiming at protection of the marine environment. Nonetheless, the first stage in any counter-measure is the appropriate assessment of the current environmental status and comparison with certain reference status assumed as the desired one.

, 2011; Rockenbach, Rodrigues, et al., 2011). Grape seeds contain approximately 400 mg/g of fiber, 160 mg/g of essential oil, 110 mg/g of protein and 70 mg/g

of complex phenolic compounds such as tannins, sugars and minerals, comprising an important by-product of winery and juice industries and an attractive source of natural polyphenols (Bagchi et al.., 2000; Campos, Leimann, Pedrosa, & Ferreira, 2008; Gibis & Weiss, 2012; Perumalla & Hettiarachchy, 2011; Rockenbach, Gonzaga, et al., 2011). Nevertheless, the polyphenol composition of grape seed is generally assessed in ethanolic or methanolic extracts, and there is a lack of information on the bioactive potential obtained by water extraction in non-alcoholic beverages, and the effective application of this grape constituent as a rich source of polyphenols with the aim of improving the bioactive properties BMN 673 solubility dmso and nutritional quality of food matrices. In this context, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of grape seeds inclusion on the bioactive content and the in vitro antioxidant capacity, and

also on the elemental composition of grape juices from V. Labrusca L. varieties Isabel, Bordo and Concord. The addition of grape Everolimus datasheet seeds was performed separately for each cultivar, in order to determine the potential of each variety on improving bioactive content and the feasibility of reducing their vegetable residues during juice production. Also, the metal contamination in these varietal juices was evaluated. Analytical standards of gallic acid, Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), 2,20-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals, and the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Pectinex® Ultra Color pectinolitic enzyme was obtained from Novozymes (Curitiba, Brazil). Concentrated nitric acid 65% (v/v) from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany) was

Phosphoprotein phosphatase purified by sub-boiling distillation in quartz still from Kurner Analysentechnik (Rosenheim, Germany). The standard multielement solution ICP III from Perkin–Elmer (Norwalk, USA) and Rh stock solution supplied by Sigma–Aldrich (Buchs, Switzerland) were employed. Argon gas with purity of 99.996% from Linde (Blumenau, Brazil) was used. All reagents were of analytical grade unless otherwise indicated. Distilled and deionized water with resistivity of 18.2 MΩ cm was generated by a Milli-Q plus system from Millipore (Bedford, USA). Spectrophotometric measurements were performed on a Hitachi UV–Vis spectrophotometer, model U-2010 (Tokyo, Japan). Soluble solids content was measured using a Quick-Brix 90 refractometer (Schwerzenbach, Switzerland). The refractive index of grape juices was recorded at a room temperature of 24 °C.