Platon Kostyuk a passé son baccalauréat au début de la seconde Guerre Mondiale. En 1941, il s’est réfugié à Stalingrad où il a passé ses examens dans 2 instituts à la fois : l’Institut de Médecine et l’Institut de Pédagogie. Quisinostat molecular weight Il fréquenta aussi la faculté de langues étrangères, ce qui lui permit de maîtriser parfaitement 3 langues étrangères : anglais, français et allemand. Toutefois

il n’y passa qu’un an. L’avancée des troupes allemandes sur Stalingrad poussa son père à se réfugier en 1942 à Kzil-Orda, où il continua ses études de biologie à la faculté de médecine. En 1943, incorporé dans l’Armée Rouge, il fit son service militaire dans un régiment de réserve, puis étudia à l’école de médecine militaire de Kharkov, déplacée à Achkhabad pendant la guerre, et travailla comme infirmier dans un bataillon médical de réserve. Après sa démobilisation en 1945 il revint dans sa ville natale et reprit ses études à la faculté de biologie de l’Université de Kiev pendant un an. En GSK1120212 1949 il termina aussi ses études à la faculté de Médecine de l’Université de Kiev (Fig. 2). Encore étudiant, Platon Kostyuk commença à faire de la recherche dans le laboratoire de Physiologie de l’Université de Kiev dirigé par Daniil Vorontsov, un des fondateurs de l’électrophysiologie moderne. Ce premier travail expérimental fut à l’origine

de son intérêt profond pour les mécanismes de fonctionnement du système nerveux. En 1950 Platon Kostyuk soutint une thèse équivalant à un “Ph.D.” et en 1957 une thèse de Doctorat d’Etat (Fig. 3). Dès les années ‘50 Platon Kostyuk fut le premier en URSS à pratiquer des enregistrements intracellulaires Methisazone sur des neurones de la moelle épinière à l’aide de microélectrodes de verre. Il publia son expérience et ses résultats dans deux ouvrages : «La technique des microélectrodes» et «Les deux neurones de l’arc réflexe». Dans sa foulée, de nombreux laboratoires en URSS purent contribuer au développement des notions de processus physico-chimiques dans les cellules, des mécanismes de la transmission synaptique et de génération des

Libraries excitations neuronales. De 1958 jusqu’à sa mort Platon Grigorevitch Kostyuk a travaillé dans l’Institut Bogomolets de Kiev où il dirigea le Laboratoire de Physiologie du système nerveux et développa les études de physiologie cellulaire, neurophysiologie moléculaire et biophysique des membranes. En 1960 et 1961 il a travaillé dans le laboratoire de John Eccles à Canberra (Australie). Dans ses mémoires, Platon Kostyuk rapporte: John Eccles, qui a obtenu plus tard le prix Nobel, était un grand neurophysiologiste qui ne connaissait rien de mes travaux. C’est vraiment un concours de circonstances qui m’a permis de le rencontrer et de travailler avec lui. En 1959 le “rideau de fer” est devenu moins hermétique et il est devenu possible de voyager à l’étranger; j’ai ainsi pu faire partie de la délégation soviétique au Congrès international de Physiologie de Buenos Aires.

2010; Krug et al. 2010), increased brain activation signals during cognitive processing (Bigos et al. 2010; Krug et al. 2010), and decreased regional connectivity (Wang et al. 2011). While the present study did not replicate associations between the CACNA1C polymorphism and mood disorder, this is likely due to the need for very large samples to detect weak associations between Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical candidate polymorphisms and neuropsychiatric diagnoses (Ferreira et al. 2008;

Sullivan et al. 2012). However, the present work does reinforce previous observations regarding stronger effects for the CACNA1C risk allele on cognitive and neuroimaging endophenotypes (Bigos et al. 2010) and clarifies the nature of these downstream phenotypic effects. CACNA1C minor allele carriers had

increased global brain volume, with larger effects for specific fronto-limbic regions – especially the caudate. In contrast with previous literature (Kempton et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2011), total cortical white matter Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increases were a prominent driver of increased brain volume. Total cortical grey matter increases were present, but more modest and not statistically significant. The CACNA1C risk allele also appears Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to increase global cognitive ability. This is opposite of most selleckchem findings suggesting reductions in specific aspects of cognitive and emotional processing (Bigos et al. 2010; Krug Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical et al. 2010; Soeiro-de-Souza et

al. 2012), but congruent with a recent study suggesting that CACNA1C minor allele carriers with bipolar disorder may have improved working memory (Zhang et al. 2012). Taken together, these data imply that CACNA1C risk allele effects may be valuable for some aspects of cognition, but harmful for others; an interpretation that fits with an evolutionary view of mood disorder (Akiskal and Akiskal 2005) and disease-associated genes as having both adaptive and nonadaptive value depending on context (Crespi et al. 2007; Tennessen and Akey 2011). Co-incident measurement of mood, global, and specific cognitive processes; brain structure and function; Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and downstream molecular mechanisms will be needed to more accurately characterize effects of this L-NAME HCl polymorphism. The observation of stronger effects of the CACNA1C polymorphism on caudate volumes than on global brain volumes is intriguing. CACNA1C minor alleles have been associated with both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia and nonmotor caudate subregions have been found to be important for integrating cognitive and emotional processing. Thus, the CACNA1C polymorphism may preferentially predispose individuals toward mood disorder or schizoaffective phenotypes. An important next step will be to explore specificity in the patterns of emotion or cognitive dysfunction (developmental course, severity, episodes, etc.) in individuals with this genotype.

Endocardial plaques of the subvalvar apparatus are also notable (Fig. 1A). Colour flow Doppler imaging shows a severe tricuspid regurgitation through a wide regurgitant orifice (Fig. 1B). Continuous wave Doppler of tricuspid valve showed the “dagger shaped” spectrum (Fig. 2). In order to better define right RV function, three-dimensional echocardiography (3-DE) was also performed. Short axis 3-D transthoracic echocardiography evidenced the adhesion of tricuspid valve leaflets to the right ventricular walls (Fig. 3A). The shape

of systo-diastolic RV and its main hemodynamic parameters are reported in Fig. 3B. End diastolic volume Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (EDV) resulted of 104.4 mL; end systolic volume (ESV) was 70.3 mL; stroke volume (SV) was 34.0 mL, and RVEF% resulted of 32.6%. Despite ileo-cecal resection, chemotherapy and treatment with somatostatin, the disease Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical progressively advanced. Six months later, the patient underwent laparatomy for small bowel resection. Hepatic metastatic carcinoid disease was treated with arterial hepatic embolization. Administration of octreotide (that blocks

hormone release) was also performed whereas, right-sided heart failure was treated with diuretics, ACE-inhibitors and long-acting nitrates. But, patient died three years later for hepatic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical failure and primitive ileal tumor growth. Fig. 1 A: Two-dimensional echocardiography recorded in the patient with carcinoid heart disease. Dilatation of right cavities and thickened, fixed and retracted tricuspid leaflets. Endocardial plaques on right ventricular walls are also evident. B: Severe tricuspid … Fig. 2 “Dagger shaped” of systolic tricuspid flow, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical characterized by an early peak pressure and its rapid decline. Fig. 3 A: Three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography showing the

adhesion of tricuspid leaflets to right ventricular walls, that prevents the valve closure during systole. B: Three-dimensional shape of diastolic and systolic volumes (EDV and ESV), ejection … Discussion Carcinoid heart disease is a rare Selleckchem Afatinib condition, that may be present Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in patients suffering from ileal tumors and hepatic metastases. Its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood, although a growing body of evidence points towards 5-HT playing a key role.4) GBA3 The substance has been shown to increase synthesis and upregulate tissue growth factor-β, as well as stimulating collagen synthesis by heart wall interstitial cells, producing tricuspid and/or pulmonary valve insufficiency with plaques of fibrous tissue due to the deposition of fibrous tissue on the endocardial surfaces of the heart. The excessive amounts of the hormone 5-HT contribute to the pathophysiology, because 5-HT receptors are present in human heart valves. In fact, 5-HT has been shown to stimulate collagen synthesis by heart valve interstitial cells.5) Patients with carcinoid tumors may have relatively few signs or sympoms in the early stages with high urinary levels of 5-HIAA.

The results presented here are useful for policy analysis, given the paucity of data on the interventions’ effect size across different subsets of the population: at the state level, in the rural and urban populations, and across the wealth distribution. Additional research is needed to introduce an infectious disease model into the ABM used here and to take into account the state fixed effects. We thank Ashvin Ashok for Obeticholic Acid in vivo his research assistance. Conflicts of interest: None declared. Funding: This work was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation through the Disease Control Priorities project at the University of Washington (grant no. 720165), Grand Challenges

Canada through the Saving Brains project, and Johns Hopkins University (purchase order no. 2002067649) through the cost-effectiveness of rotavirus vaccination in India grant. The funders had no role in study design, Libraries writing the

report, the decision to submit, or data collection, analysis, and interpretation. “
“Rotavirus infection occurs worldwide in children under five years of age. The infection may remain asymptomatic, cause self-limiting watery diarrhea or may lead to acute gastroenteritis with fever, vomiting and severe dehydration that may at times be fatal. Bouts of vomiting associated with severe rotavirus gastroenteritis ABT-888 clinical trial (SRVGE) also pose a hurdle to the clinical management of these cases with oral rehydration salt and sugar solution. Furthermore, no antiviral medicine is currently considered as “standard of care” for SRVGE. On the other hand, disease burden and cost implications of rotavirus diarrhea have been estimated to be enormous [1] and [2]. Due attention has therefore been paid by global health policy makers to tackle this challenging situation. Consequently, many countries have introduced rotavirus vaccines in their routine immunization program [3] and [4] after much deliberation. Key deciding

factors for introducing rotavirus vaccine new in low-income countries have been cost of immunization, financial support from global alliance for vaccines and immunization (GAVI) and long-term sustainability of the program following withdrawal of external assistance [5]. In India, the issue continues to be debated. While one group of discussants opines that India should [6] introduce the vaccine in her routine immunization program, others take a contrary stance [7]. India’s national immunization program has evolved since the 1970s (Fig. 1) leading to the introduction of some vaccines and dropping of others based on scientific evidence and public health considerations. The rotavirus debate pivots on vaccine efficacy. While the indigenous Rotavac2 vaccine tested in India is being challenged [8], Rotarix3 and Rotateq4 – two vaccines that have undergone clinical trials in many developed and developing countries [9], [10] and [11] – have not undergone trial in India. However, the latter two are currently available through the private health sector.

First infections, though often

severe, have been shown to induce immunity against subsequent infections. Vaccination with an oral vaccine is intended to mimic infections that result in protection without causing illness [4] and [5]. Two oral Selleck Epigenetic inhibitor rotavirus vaccines are currently licensed in over 100 countries for infants six weeks of age and older. Rotarix, an attenuated G1P[8] human strain (89-12), is administered as a two-dose series [6]. Rotateq, containing five bovine-human reassortant strains with G1, G2, G3, G4, and P[8] human surface antigens, is administered as a three-dose series [6]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the introduction of these vaccines in national immunization programs worldwide, after review of clinical trial data from Africa and Asia, and post licensure data from the Americas [7]. The protective efficacy of the rotavirus vaccine, likely involving mucosal (intestinal) and systemic antibody responses selleck chemical as well as the cell-mediated immune inhibitors system, is higher than expected from serum IgA measurements in some field trials, where seroconversion rates were lower than efficacy [8]. Although there is no recognized correlate of protection at the individual

level, serum anti-RV IgA antibodies are generally accepted as a marker of vaccine immunogenicity and a possible surrogate of protection at the level of the general community [9]. Well documented evidence shows Thiamine-diphosphate kinase that immunogenicity and efficacy

of most oral vaccines in developing countries is lower than in developed countries, in all age groups [10]. Recent studies also show that seroconversion and efficacy rates of rotavirus vaccines in low and middle-income countries in Asia and Africa [11], [12] and [13] are much lower than in the United States of America, Europe, high-income Asian and Latin American countries [14], [15], [16], [17] and [18]. Further, vaccine efficacy declines significantly in developing countries in the second year of assessment [19]. The present study was conducted to compare three and five doses of an oral rotavirus vaccine for immunogenicity to determine whether increasing the number of doses increases the proportion of children responding to the vaccine, similar to the phenomenon observed in developing countries with the oral polio vaccine (OPV) [20]. This phase IV randomized, parallel group comparison study was conducted in the Well Baby Clinic of Christian Medical College (CMC) in Vellore, south India between March and December 2012. The study protocol was approved by the CMC Institutional Review Board and the trial was registered with the Clinical Trials Registry of India (CTRI/2012/02/002454). Healthy term infants with a birth weight ≥2 kg aged less than seven weeks attending the Well Baby Clinic at CMC Vellore for routine immunization were invited to participate in the study.

20 Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) completely breaks the traditional mold in dementia by having attention deficits identified as a core feature of the syndrome.22 These patients also have larger attentional deficits than AD patients while, like HD and VaD patients, they have relatively preserved episodic memory.21,23

Further, the attentional deficits seen in DLB are not. only quantitatively, but Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical also qualitatively different from those seen in AD. For example, the variability in reaction times in a 90-s computerized test of attention, choice reaction time, can discriminate between the two types of dementia with a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 92%.21 Importantly, different profiles of attentional impairment, can be seen in all the major types of dementia (VaD, AD, and DLB21), probably reflecting the differing etiologies of the conditions. Thus, DLB can also be differentiated from VaD Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 82%, while AD can be differentiated from VaD with a sensitivity of 64% and a specificity of 77 %.21 Attentional impairments have also been seen in first time diagnosed unmeditated Parkinson’s disease patients,24 Parkinson’s dementia,25 and elderly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical stroke patients actually free from dementia.26 Besides marked deficits to

attention,27 demented patients show marked reductions in the speed with which they can recognize previously presented information (words, pictures, faces5,6,23). These deficits are also characteristic of mild INCB024360 manufacturer cognitive impairment. (MCI)28 and add a further dimension to our knowledge of the cognitive deficit profiles in the dementias that have gone undetected by nonautomated assessments like the ADAS. The behavioral impact of delays in time to retrieve information from working Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and secondary memory is manifest in a variety of behavioral situations. For example, in social situations, in which not only is the patient clearly forgetful,

but even when items are retrieved or objects (or people) recognized, the increased time lag makes social Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical interactions more stressed and unsatisfactory. Other examples are patients not remembering the name of someone until after they have passed by in the street, or remembering to do something too late or in of the wrong context. Historical perspectives on cognitive assessment of dementia Alzheimer’s disease Since the registration of the anticholinesterase, tacrine, for the symptomatic treatment of AD in the late 1980s, the cognitive outcome measure most frequently used in clinical drug trials for new dementia drugs has been the cognitive subscale of the ADAS (ADAS-COG). However, the ADAS-COG features some well-recognized deficiencies,29-31 which, as the following examples will illustrate, have been recognized by the International Working Group on Dementia Drug Guidelines7: A generally acknowledged limitation of the ADAS-COG is that it lacks a subset for attention. […

37%) (74). However 24% of patients had extrahepatic disease, all had 4 or more hepatic metastases and 25% were on 2nd or 3rd line chemotherapy. These data simply do not apply to patients with straightforward resectable disease. We recently reviewed 111 patients with synchronous colorectal liver metastases who were all initially deemed resectable

and received neoadjuvant chemotherapy and found that response to therapy did not correlate with overall survival (75). Given the low rates of progression on modern chemotherapy (5-10%), Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the associated hepatotoxicity and the fact that progression does not necessarily translate into poor outcome we do not favor neoadjuvant chemotherapy for resectable disease. Conclusion Proper selection of patients for hepatic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical resection metastatic colorectal cancer demands a multidisciplinary approach in order to identify patients with prohibitive risks and medically optimize comorbidities prior to surgery. Cross-sectional imaging is crucial to determine technical resectability and identify extrahepatic disease. The definition of resectability has evolved over the past 3 decades to include multiple Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical hepatic Sorafenib mw tumors, <1 cm margins, limited extrahepatic disease and should now focus

on complete extirpation of disease with preservation of anatomic structures. Currently, hepatic disease is deemed resectable when 2 contiguous liver segments with adequate inflow, outflow and biliary drainage can be preserved and adequate liver remnant volume will remain. The presence of limited and resectable extrahepatic disease no longer precludes surgical Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical resection. We favor upfront hepatic resection in patients presenting with potentially curative and resectable disease (<4 metastases, no extrahepatic disease and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical technically resectable with clear margins) and reserve neoadjuvant chemotherapy for patients with a

high likelihood of recurrence as defined above. When experienced surgeons properly select patients, hepatic resections can Bay 11-7085 be performed safely and effectively in this diverse patient population. Footnotes No potential conflict of interest.
The immediate postoperative period after hepatic resection is characterized by fluid and electrolyte imbalances that are further accentuated by derangements of liver function. Maintenance of adequate fluid balance and normal renal function is critical. Cirrhotics are prone to fluid shifts, vasodilation and resultant hypotension. In this setting, colloids rather than crystalloids should be administered to restore intravascular volume. New onset postoperative ascites frequently occurs in cirrhotic patients. Management with sodium restriction and judicious use of diuretic therapy is recommended. Paracentesis may be necessary to prevent tense ascites.

Her seizures began when she was six years old. Her seizures were described as seeing flashing lights for about five seconds, then having loss of consciousness with rhythmic limb movements and jaw locking for 1-2 minutes, and urinary incontinence, followed by post-ictal fatigue and confusion for about 30 minutes. She used to have one or two attacks per month. These

episodes never happened during sleep. The episodes were often triggered by pain induced by stimulations such as dental work or needle insertion for blood sampling. However, sometimes there was no identifiable Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical triggering factor. She had been admitted to hospital repeatedly for her seizures. She had no www.selleckchem.com/products/carfilzomib-pr-171.html history of tobacco, alcohol or drug abuse. Her mother did not have any pregnancy complications. The patient had normal development as well as normal school and university performances. In review of her systems, she complained of having a migraine-type headache and daytime Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical hypersomnolence. She did not have any past history of major febrile illnesses, central nervous system infections, febrile convulsions or significant head traumas. Her medical and neurological examinations, routine blood tests including hematology, blood chemistry, and liver function tests, brain MRI and electrocardiogram (ECG) were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical normal. Repeated interictal

electroencephalograms (EEGs) were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical normal as well. The patient’s condition had been diagnosed as epileptic seizures, and she had been treated with various anti-epileptic drugs (AED) for the preceding 16 years. She did not have reasonable drug compliance despite her repeated seizures, because she believed that drugs were not effective for her illness. She was referred to us by her dentist, because she had

experienced a seizure during dental work after injecting an anesthetic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical agent. At the time of admission, she was taking lamotrigine 50 mg daily. She was admitted to epilepsy care unit, , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, for a video-EEG/ECG monitoring. She had no seizure attack during the study, and the recorded EEG and ECG were entirely normal. After obtaining her consent, it was decided to provoke her seizure using the pain of subcutaneous injection of one ml normal saline as a triggering factor. A few seconds later, her heart rate dropped, and she developed MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit asystole, which lasted for about 100 seconds. During asystole, she developed a clonic-tonic-clonic seizure for one minute, and post-ictal confusion for about 15 minutes. The attack terminated spontaneously without any intervention. The diagnosis of vasovagal syncope was confirmed, and she was referred to a cardiologist after being instructed to discontinue taking lamotrigine. According to her recent office visit, she had been seizure free for eight months since she was referred to the cardiologist.

2012). For example, patients with PD demonstrated higher

FA values in the left anterior and right posterior cingulate correlated with symptom severity (Han et al. 2008). Further, studies in patients with GAD demonstrated reduced FA in the uncinate fasciculus (Hettema et al. 2012) (connecting the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex), a result also demonstrated in social phobia (SP) (Phan et al. 2009; Baur et al. 2011), and increased FA in the right postcentral gyrus (Zhang et al. 2011b). In PTSD, lowered FA has been found in areas including the left frontal gyrus, internal capsule, and midbrain (Kim et al. 2005; Schuff et al. 2011). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Changes in integrity of white matter pathways connecting fear areas, including the uncinate fasciculus and corpus callosum, have been associated with trait anxiety states (Kim and Whalen 2009; Baur et al. 2011; Westlye et al. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2011). We are aware of only one study assessing the effect of psychiatric disorders and smoking on white matter integrity. Zhang et al. (2010a), assessing patients with schizophrenia, demonstrated reductions in FA of the

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical left anterior thalamic radiation/anterior limb of the internal capsule that were both independent and additive in smokers and patients with schizophrenia, such that smokers with schizophrenia had the largest reductions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in FA. No studies to our knowledge have yet been conducted in patients with anxiety disorders. In AC220 summary, gross and microstructural changes to key brain regions and white matter tracts are present in cigarette smokers and patients with anxiety disorders.

Changes to white matter microstructure in certain regions connecting fear response areas have been associated with trait anxiety states, and it is possible that cigarette smoke could negatively affect these pathways. Future Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical research into these areas may provide important insights into anxiety pathogenesis. Neurotransmitter systems The importance of specific neurotransmitter systems has been extensively demonstrated in anxiety disorders, with current first-line pharmacological therapies interacting predominantly these with the serotonergic, noradrenergic, cannabinoid, cholinergic, and dopaminergic systems. In addition, some of these agents are also effective in enhancing smoking cessation (Jorenby et al. 1999), suggesting a plausible biological interaction between these systems and nicotine dependence. Many studies have demonstrated that nicotine and cigarette smoke affect diverse neurotransmitter systems. However, how these may predispose to increased anxiety is very complex, involving interaction between systems and differing effects of cigarette components. Much scientific work has explored the influence of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on brain function.

With this aim, Fallon et al described how infusion of transforming growth factor α (TGFα) into the striatal parenchyma resulted in an “in vivo induction of massive proliferation, directed migration, and differentiation of neural cells” from the subventricular zone, with positive functional effects in a rat model of PD.98 This potentially very interesting observation now awaits confirmation

by other independent research groups. Moreover, it was recently suggested that, there is a turnover #MK-1775 mouse keyword# of DA neurons in the SNc of the adult, mouse and that, this turnover Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increases when the DA neurons are toxically injured by MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) treatment.99 Other workers have failed to find such a turnover normally ongoing in the adult SNc, but it has been shown that adult neural stem cells isolated from the SNc region have the potential to differentiate into neurons when grafted into neurogenic regions such as the hippocampus.100 Additional research will have to show whether or not similar results can be found in

humans. Conclusion The optimal source for transplantation is one of cells that can be efficiently Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and reproducibly produced at a reasonable cost in combination with showing predictable therapeutic efficacy after grafting. The cells should

require minimal genetic manipulation or modification Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical by signaling molecules in culture media to properly differentiate into the required Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cell types. Furthermore, they should be nonproliferative after grafting, free of infectious elements, and immunologically compatible with the host. As reviewed in this article, research to develop transplant procedures is trying to fulfill these criteria. In contrast to the limitations of fetal cell sources, and to the cellularmolecular complexities of diverse NPCs, advances in the biology of blastula-derived ES cells suggest that this source may have important advantages over the others. However, to keep the expectations of stem cells from becoming unrealistic, it should Tryptophan synthase probably be emphasized to clinicians and to patients and their families not to expect the clinical outcome using stem cell-derived DA neurons to be fundamentally “better” than what has already been achieved in the best cases using fetal DA neurons. After all, stem cells are basically just a way of obtaining a more practical and reliable source of the same type of neuron that has already been tried in clinics.