This suggests that while cells may adopt more than one phenotype, they do not necessarily coproduce more than one signature cytokine in vivo at any single point in time. Because of the quite extensive cross-regulation between these phenotypes, it remains most likely that phenotype induction of individual cells depends on the status of other cells in the same microenvironment. Future work will reveal which phenotypes are

‘compatible’ for co-expression in single Th cells and which ones are not. Although helper T-cell responses are generally referred to as a single entity, Th responses are made up of thousands to millions of cells. High-throughput technologies such as mRNA profiling and ChIP-seq are however unable to delineate check details the heterogeneity within these cell populations. New techniques now allow detailed mapping of per-cell movement in vivo with real-time imaging [87, 88]. Each tracked cell differentiates and makes a phenotype choice. Given that the number of molecules involved is very small, stochasticity plays a large role in determining the outcome of the phenotype choice, which means that cells adopting the opposite phenotype

are inevitable [89-91]. Mathematical models have been used to study the role of stochasticity in the context of Th-cell differentiation and have for instance shown that even in a strongly Th2-skewing environment, some cells will adopt an alternative selleck compound phenotype [73]. Further variation comes from the cell’s microenvironment where local fluctuations in cytokines may deviate from the global concentrations in the tissue, leading to Th cells adopting alternative phenotypes [92]. Every response is therefore heterogeneous at the single Fenbendazole cell level, due to chance events at the single cell level. However, at the population level, the variability evens out due to the large number of cells that respond. This makes predicting behaviour of the population

possible, even though the individual cells display stochastic behaviour [93-95]. Although the decisions made by individual Th cells responding to antigen can be seen as independent chance events, they are affected by similar choice events in their local neighbourhood. Th cells have been shown to have effects on a spatial scale that is slightly larger than their immediate neighbourhood [96]. Cells can therefore be affected by neighbouring Th cells and be induced to change phenotype at an early stage after the initial decision. In this way, all cells in the same local microenvironment should come to a consensus by overruling Th cells that by chance are adopting a discordant phenotype. Such a local quorum sensing would resolve most of the inherent uncertainty in the decision-making process [97, 98]. In that sense, the local cytokine environment dampens the stochastic choices that individual cells make.