Further studies examining cytokine responses in individuals from populations in which BCG does not offer good protection have been planned, and studies to establish which cells are producing these cytokines, and the kinetics involved, are warranted. Polyfunctional CD4+ T cells

have recently been shown to be induced following BCG and recombinant MVA85A vaccination [39]. We suggest that future vaccine trials might measure cytokines released into supernatants by Multiplex as a first step, in order to identify Selleck ABT 888 key cytokines for more detailed study, followed by measurement of these key cytokines and chemokines using multicolour FACS to determine if polyfunctional cells have been induced. With the current focus on polyfunctional cells [25], [39] and [40], this study reminds us of the importance of measuring SNS-032 purchase additional cytokines and chemokines to assess vaccine-induced immunity, and not just to focus on those we know are important. We would like to acknowledge Dr. Christine Sloczynska at Waltham Forest Primary Care Trust and Dr. Makki Hameed at Redbridge Primary Care Trust and Shakuntala Patel for their help with the UK infant study. We would like to thank all the mothers and babies who participated in the study. This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust

(grant number 063558/Z/01/B) and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Grand Challenge (award 6_74). “
“Salmonella enterica is a diverse pathogen classified into >2400 serovars and is the cause of important infections in both humans and livestock. S. enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) is the causative agent of typhoid fever, a serious systemic disease in humans. It is estimated that the there are 22 million cases of typhoid fever annually worldwide, resulting in 200,000 deaths [1] and [2]. Vaccination against S. Typhi is a potentially

attractive method of disease control, but current vaccines have significant drawbacks and there is a need for improved versions [3] and [4]. S.enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), a common cause of gastroenteritis (salmonellosis) in humans, has added significance because infection of mice with this serovar generates a systemic infection with important similarities to human typhoid fever. This mouse model has been used extensively to study typhoid-like infections [5] and [6]. The F0F1 ATPase is a complex of membrane proteins found in eukaryotes and prokaryotes that has been best studied in mitochondria [7] and [8], chloroplasts [9] and [10] and Escherichia coli [11], [12] and [13]. It plays a central role in energy transduction, generating ATP from ADP and Pi substrates via oxidative phosphorylation. The synthesis of ATP is driven by the flow of protons into the cell, generating a proton motive force which energises processes such as motility and active transport [14], [15], [16] and [17]. In E.