Resazurin assay The method described by O’ Brien et al [43], bas

Resazurin assay The method described by O’ Brien et al. [43], based on the reduction of resazurin to resorufin by mitochondrial oxidoreductases, was used. Cells were exposed to the AuNPs for 24 h, suspensions were removed, and cells washed with PBS and then treated with 20% VS-4718 (v/v) of resazurin dye reagent prepared in EMEM medium. The plate was then placed in a 37°C/5% CO2 incubator for 2 h, after which the fluorescence intensity was read at 532-nm excitation and 595-nm emission wavelengths using a Tecan GENios plate reader. Results are represented as a percentage of the control.

To study whether there was any further reduction in viability, cytotoxicity was also analysed after 48 h of exposure. Images of cell condition At 2 and 24 h of exposure, images of the cells treated with NPs were taken and analysed for signs of cytotoxicity. An inverted light microscope (Axiovert 25, Carl Zeiss) equipped with a camera was used to take images. Evidence of cytoskeleton rounding or a change in normal shape compared to untreated controls was regarded as a sign of cytotoxicity. Also, to determine the degree of cytotoxicity, we compared the morphology of cultured cells with that of cells exposed to the positive control chloramine-T. Oxidative GDC-0994 concentration stress Quantification of reactive oxygen species Intracellular ROS production was determined using the dichlorofluorescein (DCF) assay [44]. Stock aliquots of 2’, 7’-dichlorofluorescein

diacetate (DCFH-DA) were prepared in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)

(100 mM) and diluted 1:1,000 in MEM phenol red-free medium to a final concentration of 100 μM, 0.1% (v/v) DMSO. After the exposure period (2 or 24 h), the medium and exposure compounds were removed, and cells were washed with PBS. Next, 100 μM of DCFH-DA probe was added to each well. The plate was incubated at 37°C/5% CO2 in the dark for 30 min. After the incubation period, the DCFH-DA probe was removed, and the cells were washed twice with PBS. MEM phenol red-free medium was then added to the cells, and the fluorescence was measured at 485-nm excitation and 535-nm emissions (Tecan GENios plate reader). Fluorescent readings were taken immediately (time 0) and every 15 min over 60 min, with the plates maintained under dark conditions and incubated under exposure conditions (37°C/5% CO2) between measurements. ROS production was calculated as the 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl percentage increase in fluorescence per well over a 60-min period using the formula [(Ft60 − Ft0)/Ft0 × 100], where Ft60 and Ft0 are the fluorescence measured at time 60 and 0 min, respectively. This result was finally expressed as percentage of the control. Reduced glutathione/oxidised glutathione ratio The assay protocol was set up based on the optimised microtiter plate method used by Allen et al. [45]. Dinaciclib solubility dmso Following the 24-h exposure, cells were lysed, and 50 μl of PBS was then added to each well. Twenty-five microlitres of cell suspension was transferred to a new 96-well plate and used to assay for protein content.

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