Figure 3 RANKL induces the activation of NF-κB. (A) 4T1 and NMuMG cells were incubated with 100 ng/mL RANKL. At various time points, the cytoplasmic fractions and nuclear fractions were extracted and then subjected to SDS-PAGE/immunoblotting with anti-NF-κB p65, anti-phospho-ERK1/2, click here anti-phospho-Akt, anti-phospho-mTOR, anti-phospho-JNK, anti-phospho-STAT3, anti-ERK1/2, anti-Akt, anti-mTOR, anti-JNK, and anti-STAT3 antibodies. Anti-β-actin and anti-lamin antibodies were used as internal standards. (B) Quantification of the amount of NF-κB p65, phospho-ERK1/2, phospho-Akt, phospho-mTOR or phospho-STAT3,

normalized to the amounts of the corresponding proteins, respectively. The results are representative of 5 independent experiments. *p < 0.01, compared to controls (ANOVA with Dunnett’s test). Thus far, the results indicate that RANKL-mediated EMT in 4T1 and NMuMG cells occurs via activation of the NF-κB p65 subunit. Therefore, we treated 4T1 cells with DMF, a NF-κB inhibitor, in order to determine whether suppression of the NF-κB p65 subunit would 4-Hydroxytamoxifen molecular weight result in the inhibition of RANKL-mediated EMT. Administration of DMF inhibited the RANKL-mediated changes in the morphology of 4T1 cells (Figure 4A). Next, we investigated whether DMF suppressed the RANKL-mediated upregulation

of EMT markers, cell migration, and invasion. DMF inhibited the upregulation of EMT markers, cell migration, and EPZ5676 cost invasion in 4T1 cells (Figure 4B–4C). In addition, DMF suppressed the nuclear translocation of NF-κB by RANKL stimulation (Figure 4D–4E). These results indicate that NF-κB plays an essential role in the RANKL/RANK system. Figure 4 Effects of DMF on RANKL-induced EMT and EMT-related mRNA expression. (A) Analysis of 4T1 cell morphology after cell treatment of with 100 ng/mL RANKL or 100 μM DMF (× 40 magnification). (B) Total RNA was extracted, and the mRNA levels of vimentin, E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Snail, and Twist find more were determined by real-time PCR. The results are expressed as treated over control

ratio after correction to GAPDH mRNA levels. The results are representative of 5 independent experiments. *p < 0.01, as compared to controls (ANOVA with Dunnett’s test). (C) 4T1 cells were pretreated with 100 ng/mL RANKL or 100 μM DMF for 24 h, after which 5 × 103 cells were seeded into the upper compartments of chambers. Migration was analyzed by Boyden chamber assays using Falcon cell culture inserts. Invasive properties were analyzed using Falcon cell culture inserts covered with 50 μg of Matrigel per filter. For both assays, the lower chambers contained conditioned media (addition of RANKL in serum-free medium), which was used as a chemoattractant. After incubation for 24 h, the cells invading the lower surface were counted microscopically. The results are representative of 5 independent experiments. *p < 0.01 vs. the controls (ANOVA with Dunnet’s test). (D) 4T1 cells were incubated with 100 ng/mL RANKL or 100 μM DMF.