Analysis of audible and, especially, ultrasonic vocalization

is a well-established method for the assessment of stress in pain and fear based paradigms,9 especially in infant rats whose endocrine responses are subject to developmental inconsistency (see below). In juvenile animals, ultrasonic vocalization reliably indicates anxiety, but can be specifically modulated by maternal contact or predator cues.10 Stress exerts profound effects on the acquisition, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical retention, and retrieval of new behavioral repertoire. As this process is an integral part of the formation of strategies for coping Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with stress and correlations with morphological and neurochemical measures have been established, assessment of learning and memory can be used for the evaluation of transient and persistent consequences of stress. The emphasis, however, should be put on “Selleck BX795 persisitent,” as behavioral acquisition is associated with the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mobilization of several stress responsive neurochemical mechanisms, and the outcome depends on their “reverberation,” especially considering factors such as stress duration, crosstalk between neurochemical systems, and the organism’s adequate coping with the challenge. Several publications on this subject

note dichotomous effects: short and controllable stress facilitates acquisition, whereas severe chronic stress interferes with memory consolidation and retrieval. Activation of Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical monoamin-ergic transmission and arousal is a plausible explanation of the former phenomenon, while biphasic effects of glu-cocorticoids, also in conjunction with their secondary influence on neurotransmission, have been Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical implicated in the interpretation of shifts in learning and memory performance under stressful conditions.11 To make this issue even more complicated, significant contribution

of sex and age to this outcome should be noted. The concise message in the context of this review is that the impairment of acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval can serve as descriptors of oxyclozanide detrimental consequences of poorly controlled chronic stress. Physiological end points Cardiovascular responses, such as changes in heart rate and arterial blood pressure, were recognized early as essential components of the response to stress, and are causally associated with the activation of the autonomic nervous system. With the increasing popularity of telemetric recording equipment, monitoring of cardiovascular end points has become a useful research tool in stress models.