A third protein shown to interact with laforin, called PTG, is a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatese-1 (PP1) that enhances glycogen accumulation (21). It was shown that the G240S missense mutation identified in some LD patients disrupts the interaction between laforin and PTG (while glycogen binding and phosphatase activity remain preserved). This observation suggests that PTG is critical for laforin function and that laforin is part of a complex of proteins associated with glycogen and may have a role in regulating its metabolism. Studies using a mammalian two-hybrid system demonstrated that laforin interacts with glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). Furthermore, laforin

reduces GSK3 Ser 9 phosphorylation (25, 26). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical GSK3 is a potent glycogen synthase (GS) inhibitor. The relationship between GSK3, GS, laforin and LBs is discussed below. EPM2B gene was identified through genome-wide linkage scan followed by haplotype analysis and homozygosity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical mapping performed in a cluster of French-Canadian families from Quebec (11, 27). To date, 40 mutations have been found in the EMP2B gene, including insertion, missense Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and nonsense changes, frameshifts and deletions in both compound heterozygous as well as homozygous states. The EMP2B gene product encodes a 395 amino acid protein

named malin which contains a zinc finger of the RING type at the N-terminus and six NHL-repeat motifs at the C-terminus. NHL motifs are likely involved in protein-protein interactions, while the RING-finger motif of malin is typical of E3 ubiquitin ligases. Sub-celllular localization studies showed that MYC-tagged malin, similarly to laforin, also localizes to the cytoplasm at Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the ER and the nucleus (16, 17, 28). The E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of malin was confirmed in vitro (25, 29). At least two mutations associated with LD (Cys26Ser and Phe33Ser) result in inactivation of malin’s

ubiquitinase function (13, 25). Ubiquitination can serve several purposes Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical including targeting the ubiquitinated protein for destruction or actively regulating its function (30, 31). Recent studies demonstrated that laforin and malin interact and that this interaction occurs at the central regions of both proteins (25, 29). There is data suggesting that malin ubiquitinates laforin, targeting laforin for destruction, but this is presently difficult to understand, as destruction Linifanib (ABT-869) of laforin by malin would be expected to result in Lafora disease (29). Finally, it was demonstrated through co-immunoprecipitation studies that malin and glycogen synthase (GS) interact, although the result of such interaction is not known. Animal models of Lafora Disease Animal models of Lafora Disease known to date include a naturally occurring dog, one transgenic mouse and one knockout mouse. The canine model was observed in approximately 5% of Venetoclax purchase Miniature Wirehaired Dachshunds (MWHDs) in England. The identified mutation was a dodecamer expansion in the EPM2B gene (32).