2009; Nikota and Stampfli 2012) and atherosclerosis (Ambrose and Barua 2004; Armani et al. 2009). These actions may also contribute to pathogenesis of anxiety. Numerous studies have investigated levels of inflammatory mediators in anxiety disorders and increased anxiety states (Wadee et al. 2001). The results are heterogeneous, endorsing Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical both increases and decreases in mediators. For example, psychological stress has been associated with increased production of proinflammatory cytokines Cabozantinib solubility dmso including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1

receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), and IFN-γ, coupled with decreased production of anti-inflammatory Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical cytokines including interleukin-10 (IL-10) and interleukin-4 (IL-4), with higher anxiety responses associated with significantly greater IFN-γ (Maes et al. 1998). In another study, clinically anxious individuals with a Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) score ≥8 demonstrated significantly higher levels of IL-6 and

lower levels of serum cortisol, but no difference in C-reactive protein (CRP), compared with nonanxious individuals after controlling for depression and neuroticism (O’Donovan Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical et al. 2010). Others studies, however, have demonstrated an inverse relationship between psychological stress and levels of TNF-α (Chandrashekara et al. 2007). Studies in patients with OCD also demonstrate varying (Brambilla

et al. 1997; Monteleone et al. 1998; Denys et al. 2004; Konuk et al. 2007) expression of plasma TNF-α, interleukin-1-beta (IL-1β), and IL-6. The first cytokine study performed in OCD found no increase in levels of interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, or soluble interleukin-2 receptor Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (sIL-2R), although severity of compulsive symptoms was positively correlated with concentrations of plasma IL-6 and interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) (Maes et al. 1994), suggesting that IL-6 signaling Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may be associated with compulsive behavior. In another study comparing OCD and generalized social anxiety disorder (GSAD), lipopolysaccharide-induced production of IL-6 was decreased in OCD but maintained in GSAD (Fluitman et al. 2010). Interestingly, patients with OCD generally demonstrate lower rates of smoking than in other anxiety disorders (Bejerot and Humble 1999), with results also suggesting possible cholinergic supersensitivity in these disorders (Lucey et al. 1993). Few studies Ketanserin have investigated inflammatory cytokines levels (Marazziti et al. 1992; Brambilla et al. 1999) and alterations of other immune cell markers (Rapaport 1998; Park et al. 2005) in PD, with data showing heterogeneous results. No significant changes in any of these variables could be found during CO2 inhalation-induced panic (van Duinen et al. 2008). Numerous investigations support upregulated inflammatory activity in PTSD (for review see Gill et al.