They are distinguished from conventional adaptive B-2 cells by their surface phenotype, anatomical

localization to peritoneal and pleural cavities, restricted use of VH genes that are minimally edited and their capacity for self-renewal. B-1 cells produce natural antibodies in a rapid T cell-independent manner in response to several microbial antigens [2, 3]. Natural antibodies, which in mice consist mainly of antibodies of the immunoglobulin (Ig)M isotype, are present at birth without MAPK inhibitor external antigen stimuli and provide a first-line defence against invading microorganisms. Despite their overall weak binding properties and polyreactivity, they possess, together with complement, an important function in maintaining tissue homeostasis and clearance of apoptotic cells [4-6]. In both mice and humans, oxidation-specific epitopes found on altered self-antigens

and apoptotic cells are dominant targets for natural antibodies [7]. In addition to B-1 cells, marginal zone B cells (MZB) in the spleen also contribute to the serum titres of natural IgM and they have functional properties in common with B-1 cells [8]. The regulation of B-1 cells is not BMS-354825 in vitro understood completely, although both Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 and TLR-2 agonists exert positive effects by inducing cell proliferation and secretion of natural antibodies [7]. In some conditions, B-1 cells and their antibodies seem to have protective properties while they are pathogenic in others. B-1 cells are increased markedly in number in autoimmune prone New Zealand black/New Zealand white (NZB/NZW) F1 mice, thereby linking these cells to autoimmunity [9]. Natural IgM promotes inflammation and tissue damage in several models of ischaemia–reperfusion injury [10, 11]. In contrast,

B-1 cells and natural IgM have been assigned a protective role in atherosclerosis, which has been demonstrated in several in-vivo models [12-15]. In clinical studies, serum titres of IgM also correlate inversely with vascular risk [16-18]. The atheroprotective effect of natural IgM is proposed to be due to its binding to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL), with the uptake of OxLDL being an important event in the development of atherosclerosis. Etofibrate Secreted IgM can bind to OxLDL in circulation or in the atherosclerotic plaque, thereby inhibiting the uptake of OxLDL by macrophage scavenger receptor, thus potentially decreasing foam cell formation [19, 20]. Individuals with diabetes have a several-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared with healthy subjects, but the underlying reason is not known. Decreased levels of IgM against a particle resembling OxLDL, malonedialdehyde-modified LDL (MDA-LDL) have been reported in individuals with diabetes [21-23].