72,78,86 pH-selleck compound sensitive intracellular signaling molecules include Pyk2 and soluble adenlyl cyclase (sAC).72 All of these molecules are sensitive enough to detect pH changes that occur during physiology or pathophysiology. Further, all of these molecules have been suggested as candidates for pH chemosensitivity.72,86

Though more investigation is needed, some of these molecules have already Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical been implicated in pH sensing. For example, voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels and NMDA receptors modulate synaptic plasticity in response to changes in extracellular pH.80,81 Adenosine Al receptors, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) receptors (P2X and P2Y), and ASIC1a have been implicated in the ability of CO2 and low pH to inhibit seizure activity.32,78 Recent studies also investigated the potential role in the inward rectifier K+ channel Kir5.1, which is highly sensitive to extracellular pH when heteromerically coupled to Kir4.1. Disrupting Kir5.1 produced abnormal respiration and metabolic acidosis in mice, however central hypercapnic ventilatory responses remained Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical intact. Instead, impaired sensory afferent nerve conduction was thought to be responsible for the abnormal respiratory phenotype.85 Effects of chemosensation

on arousal and emotion circuits pH-sensitive respiratory Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical chemosensors in the brain stem medulla and pons comprise a powerful mechanism for controlling systemic CO2 and pH. Slow or shallow breathing acidifies systemic pH, while fast or deeper breathing raises systemic pH, making it more alkaline. There may also be a need for higher level (more rostral) brain structures to monitor pH, for example to produce Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical appropriate cognitive or behavioral responses to rising CO2. Rising CO2 heralds the potential threat of suffocation, a terrifying situation that demands immediate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical detection and action to ensure survival. The clusters of pH-sensitive neurons in the medulla and pons that stimulate breathing might communicate this need for action to higher level structures. Alternatively, it might be advantageous if sites above the medulla and pons sensed pH more directly.68,69 A prominent example is midbrain serotonergic

neurons. Midbrain raphe neurons are highly pH-sensitive and increase firing when CO2 rises and pH falls.87 These neurons are well positioned to deliver serotonin out (5-HT) to forebrain, cortical, and subcortical structures and thus alter mood and cognition in response to CO2 and low pH. In sleep, a rising CO2 and falling pH might signal the need to reposition the airway or to relieve an obstruction. During sleep CO2 inhalation causes wild-type mice to wake up, whereas CO2 fails to wake mice lacking pH-sensitive serotonin neurons.88 Thus, dysfunction of these neurons might play a critical role in sudden infant death syndrome,89 where a failure to wake may lead to suffocation. Neurons in even higher order brain areas are also activated by low pH, including orexin-expressing neurons in the hypothalamus.